UC-NRLF 


SB    E77    M7b 


IINTS  ON  DAIRYING 


LIBRARY 

OF   THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF  THK 

STATE  VITICULTURAL  COMMISSION1. 

Deceived,  January,  1896. 
Accession  No .  (0 15 5  I .       Class  No. 


! 


3^ 


Edited  by  T.   D.  Curtis. 


AN  EIGHT  PAGE  MONTHLY,  6  COLUMNS  20  INCHES  LONG 
To  THE  PAGE. 


c!HE  *  e^EST*ANO  *  (^,HEAPEST  *  ^£APER  *  PUBLISHED 

FOR   THE 

Q-^s  —  Dairy  or  the  Farm.  -  ^x§) 


IT    KEEPS   UP    WITH    THE    TIMES 

AND  GIVES  ALL  THE  LATEST 

METHODS  AND  IDEAS. 


IPriee  Only  5O  Oents  a  "^.'ear1. 
T.   D.   CURTIS  &SONS,     -    SYRACUSE,   N.  Y. 


THOMAS  HIGGIN,  ESQ.,  LIVERPOOL, 

Inventor  of  the  Hig^in  Improved  Process  for  manufacturing 
Knit,  an  improvement  in  this  industry  as  important  as  the  Bessemer 
process  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  His  firm  are  the  owners  of 
two  of  the  largest  suit  works  in  the  Cheshire  salt  district,  turning 
.out  immense  quantities  of  this  article,  which  they  ship  to  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

THE   HIGGIN  "EUREKA"  SALT  CO., 
Liverpool,  I^iiglaml,    and  110  Reade  St.,  New  York. 


USING  POOR  SALT  TO  SEASON  GOOD  BUTTER  is  LIKE  USING  POOR  THREAD  IN  SEWING 
GOOD  CLOTH. 


HIGCIIXT'S  "EUREKA" 

ENGLISH  HIGH  GRADE 

DAIRY*  AND  «TABLE -SALT 


EUREKA 

FINE  Sit1 


GOLD   MEDALS 


HIGKKJEST 


Great  Fairs  of  the  World. 

1st  Prize  Centennial  Ex.,  Phila.,1876 
"        Ex.  Dniverselle,  Paris.  1878 
"         Dairy  Show,  London . .  .1879 
Dairy  Show,  Dublin.  ..1879 
"        International   Exposi- 
tion. Melbourne 1881 

"        International  Exhibi- 
tion, Adelaide 1881 

Dairy  Show, London.  ..1882 
"        International  Exhibi- 
tion, New  Zealand...  1882 
Dairy  Show,  London . . .  1883 
"        Dairy  Show,  London . . .  1884 
"        World 's  Industrial  and 
Cotton  Centennial  Ex. 
New  Orleans 1885 

VER  815.000  in  Premiums    were    awarded   to   parties   using 
HIGGIN'S  "EUREKA"  SA  L.T  in  their  Prize  Butter 
and  Cheese  at  the  principal  Dairy  Fairs  in  the  U.  S.,  carrying 
sweepstakes  and  highest  awards  wherever  put  in  competition. 

"EUREKA"  S  A  L.T  has  no  equal  in  Purity,  Strength,  Flavor, 
Uniform  Grain  of  Crystal,  Keeping  Quality,  Perfect  Dryness  and 
cheapness.  Give  it  a  trial  and  be  convinced  of  its  merits. 

THE  HIGGIN  "EUREKA"  SALT  CO., 

(OF  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND") 

Office,  116  Reade  Street,       -      -       -      NEW  YORK. 


I  N  T  S 


1 1  1  Y  1 1 


BY    T.    D.    CURTIS. 


Complete  success 


conditions. 


SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 

PUBLISHED  FROM  THE  OFFICE  OF  THE 

FARMER  AND  DAIRYMAN. 

1885. 


S  F  2,     ! 


COPYRIGHTED  IN  THE  YEAR  1885 
BY  T.  D.  CURTIS. 


PREFACE. 


It  was  intended  by  the  Author  to  publish  an  exhaus- 
tive practical  work  on  Dairying.  But  his  time  was  so 
occupied  by  other  matters  that  he  was  compelled  to  aban- 
don the  idea.  Much  of  the  following  pages  was  written 
while  traveling,  the  intervals  of  waiting  at  hotels  and  rail- 
road stations  being  devoted  to  this  work.  But  on  reperus- 
ing  the  chapters  as  they  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the 
FARMER  AND  DAIRYMAN,  and  making  slight  additions,  he 
has  concluded  to  give  them  to  the  Dairy  Public  in  their 
present  form,  believing  that  they  may  be  of  some  assist- 
ance to  the  tyro,  and  perhaps  afford  a  hint,  here  and  there, 
to  the  dairyman  of  more  experience  who  wishes  to  keep 
abreast  of  his  fellows  in  the  march  of  progress.  This 


IV  HINTS  OX  DAIRYING. 

little  book  is  not  intended  to  supersede  any  other  work 
on  the  subject,  but  to  play'  the  part  of  an  auxiliary  and 
present  in  a  condensed  form  ther  pith  which  the  reader 
might  not  have  time  to  get  from  a  more  elaborate  volume. 
The  favor  with  which  his  "Hints  on  Cheesmaking" — now 
out  of  date — was  received,  gives  the  author  confidence 
that  his  later  effort  may  serve  to  fill  a  place  that  now  re- 
mains unoccupied.  Providence  seems  to  have  selected 
him  as  one  of  the  laborers  in  this  field  of  education,  and 
he  conscientiously  devotes  a  portion  of  his  energies  to 
the  service  with  envy  toward  none,  but  entertaining  the 
hope  that  his  mite  may  not  be  unacceptable  among  so 
many  larger  contributions. 


HINTS    fFOTG. 


HISTORICAL. 


JJgv  AIRYINQ  runs  back  to  a  period  in  the  development 
|(pj  of  the  human  race  of  which  we  have  no  record. 
•*—  •  *  Man  early  learned  to  not  only  slay  animals  and  eat 
their  flesh,  but  to  appropriate  to  himself  the  food  belong- 
ing to  their  young  —  a  trait  of  selfishness  which  he  has  not 
yet  overcome,  and  even  manifests  by  preying  in  various 
ways  upon  his  fellows.  We  have  in  the  world  large  class- 
es who  add  nothing  to  its  real  wealth,  but  live  and  luxu- 
riate on  the  fat  of  the  earth  by  drawing  the  results  of 
labor  from  the  toilers  through  cunningly  devised  schemes 
of  finance,  business  and  government. 


Away  back  in  the  dimness  of  antiquity,  of  which  even 
tradition  gives  no  hint,  comparative  philology  shows  us 
that  a  civilized  race,  now  known  as  the  Aryan  race,  dwelt 


C  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

on  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  and  that  the  ox  and  the 
cow  constituted  their  chief  means  of  subsistence.  They 
lived  in  simple  peace  and  innocence,  their  language  hav- 
ing no  terms  of  war  and  strife.  But  there  came  a  time 
when  separation  began  and  migration  followed.  They 
were  scattered  to  the  four  corners  of  the  Eastern  Conti- 
nent, and  their  descendants  now  constitute  the  progressive 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  parent  nation  appears  to  have 
utterly  perished  in  giving  birth  to  the  nations  of  the  fu- 
ture. No  trace  of  it  is  left,  save  the  remnants  of  its  lan- 
guage inherited  by  its  children;  but  they  furnish  indis- 
putable evidence  of  a  common  parentage. 

A  MONO    THE    JEWS. 

Our  earliest  authentic  records  about  the  dairy  are  of 
the  use  of  milk  and  its  products  among  the  Jews.  We 
are  told,  in  the  8th  verse  of  the  18th  chapter  of  Genesis, 
that  when  Abraham  entertained  the  three  strangers,  "he 
took  butter  and  milk,  and  the  calf  which  he  had  dressed, 
and  set  it  before  them."  Moses,  in  his  song,  as  recorded 
in  the  23d  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  14th  verse,  says  of 
Jacob  that  the  Lord,  among  other  things,  gave  him  to  eat 
"butter  of  kine  and  milk  of  sheep."  Deborah,  who  de- 
clares in  her  song  that  "the  stars  in  their  courses  did 
fight  against  Sisera,"  who  was  entertained  and  slain 
by  Jael,  says  of  the  murderess  (Judges,  25th  verse  and  8th 
chapter)  "he  asked  water  and  she  gave  him  milk,  she 
brought  forth  butter  in  a  lordly  dish."  In  the  17th 
chapter  and  5th  verse  of  2d  Samuel,  the  writer  tells  us 
that  David  and  his  people,  after  the  battle  in  the  wood  of 
Ephraim,  were  given  ''honey  and  butter,  and  sheep  and 


HISTORICAL.  7 

cheese  of  kine,"  to  eat.  Zophar,  in  the  20th  chapter  of 
Job,  17th  verse,  declares  of  the  wicked  hypocrite,  who 
"hath  swallowed  down  riches,"  that  his  triumph  is  short, 
and  "he  shall  not  see  the  rivers,  the  floods,  the  brooks  of 
honey  and  butter" — which,  we  inter,  are  designed  for  the 
righteous;  and  Job  (29th  chapter  and  Gth  verse)  bemoans 
the  loss  of  his  former  prosperity,  u\vhen  I  washed  my 
steps  with  butter."  In  the  ooth  Psalm,  24th  verse,  David 
says  of  his  enemy  that  "the  words  of  his  mouth  were 
smoother  than  butter."  Solomon  appears  to  have  under- 
stood the  whole  business.  In  Proverbs,  ;30th  chapter  and 
33d  verse,  he  exclaims:  "Surely,  the  churning  of  milk 
bringeth  forth  butter."  Isaiah,  in  the  7th  chapter  and 
loth  verse,  declares  of  the  coming  Immanuel,  that  "butter 
and  honey  shall  he  eat;"  and  again  (22d  verse)  that  "for 
the  abundance  of  milk  that  they  shall  give  he  shall  eat 
butter." 

IN    SOUTHERN    EUROPE. 

Chambers  says:  "  In  ancient  times,  the  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  made  copious  use  of  butter  as  food ;  but  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  used  it  only  as  an  ointment  in 
their  baths,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Greeks  obtained 
their  knowledge  of  the  subject  from  the  Scythians,  Thra- 
cians,  and  Phrygians,  whilst  the  Romans  obtained  it  of 
Germany."  This  would  indicate  that  the  Germans  at 
that  time  were  engaged  in  dairying.  But,  even  now,  in 
Southern  Europe,  butter  is  sparingly  used,  and  in  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal  and  Southern  France,  it  is  sold  by  apoth- 
ecaries as  an  ointment.  Dairying  is  now  extensively 
carried  on  in  all  the  countries  of  Northern  Europe. 


HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 
IN   AMERICA. 

When  the  early  settlers  of  America  crossed  the  At- 
lantic, the}r  brought  with  them  their  favorite  domestic 
animals,  including  the  family  cow.  But  dairying  for  a 
long  time,  in  this  country,  appears  to  have  been  confined 
mainly  to  producing  supplies  for  the  family  of  the  dairy- 
man. It  was  not  until  quite  a  recent  date  that  dairying 
sprang  into  commercial  importance.  But,  to-day,  dairy- 
ing cannot  be  considered  second  to  any  other  industry  as 
to  either  magnitude  or  importance;  and  it  is  a  patent 
fact  that,  in  those  sections  where  dairying  is  most  exten- 
sively and  successfully  carried  on,  the  farming  population 
is  the  most  prosperous  and  happy. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years,  since  associated  dairying 
has  been  introduced,  great  progress  h;\s  been  made  in  the 
dairy — but  not  greater  than  in  many  other  occupations, 
nor  out  of  proportion  with  the  growth  of  population. 
The  growth  of  the  dairy  will  probably  never  exceed  the 
growth  of  population  so  long  as  the  present  heavy  tide  of 
immigration  continues  to  set  tow7ard  our  shores. 

FIGURES  FROM  THE  CENSUS. 

Let  us  refer  to  the  census  of  1880,  and  note  the  devel- 
opment of  the  dairy  during  the  previous  80  years: 

By  the  census  of  1850,  we  had  6,085,094  cows,  and  pro- 
duced 314,345,306  pounds  of  butter,  and  105,535,893  pounds 
of  cheese— a  total  of  418,881,199  pounds  of  product. 

By  the  census  of  1860,  we  had  8,585,735  cows,  and 
produced  459,681,372  pounds  of  butter,  and  103,663,927 
pounds  of  cheese— a  total  of  563,345,299  pounds  of 
product. 


HISTORICAL. 

By  the  r^nsus  of  1870,  we  had  8,980,832  cows  and  pro- 
pucod  514,090,088  ponnds  of  butter,  and  162,927,382  pounds 
of  cheese — a  total  of  (5 7 7, 020, 065  pounds  of  product — and 
this  notwithstanding  the  war  of  the  rebellion  came  in 
this  decade. 

By  the  census  of  1330,  \vc  !rid  12,443,120  cows,  and 
produced  803,662,071  pounds  of  butter,  and  243,157,850 
pounds  of  cheese— M  total  of  1,049,819,921  pounds  of 
product. 

GROWTH    IN    THIRTY    YEARS. 

This  is  an  increase  in  annual  product  of  630,948,622 
pounds  in  thirty  years,  or  212,057,523  pounds  more  than 
double  the  amount,  in  1880,  that  was  manufactured  in 
1850.  History  records  no  parallel  to  this  anywhere  on 
the  face  of  the  globe. 

Let  us  put  some  of  these  figures  into  tabular  form. 
We  had  in 

Cows  Inhabitants 

1880 12,443,120    to    50,155,783 

1850  6,385,094    to     23,191,876 


Increase  in  80  years  6,058,026  26,963,907 

We  did  not  quite  double  the  number  of  cows,  but  con- 
siderably more  than  doubled  the  population.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  was,  in 

1850 3.63  per  cow 

1880... 4.03 

The  increase  in  30  years  is  .40  inhabitant  to  each  cow. 
That  is  to  say,  the  population,  as  compared  with  the 
number  of  cows,  was  .40  larger  in  1880  than  it  was  in  1850. 


10  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

PRODUCT   PER   COW   AND   PER   CAPITA. 

And  now  let  us  compare  the  product  per  cow  and  per 
capita.     It  was  in 

Lbs.  per    Lbs.  per 
cow       capita 

1850 418,881,199  Ibs.,  or  05.77  or  18.06 

1880 1,049,829,921  Ibs.,  or  84.37  or  20.93 


Increase  in  30  years 18.60         2.87 

HOME  CONSUMPTION  VS.  EXPORTS. 

But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  1850  very  near- 
ly all  our  dairy  products  were  consumed  at  home ;  where- 
as in  1880,  we  exported  a  large  amount.  As  the  exports 
do  not  all  come  in  the  year  of  production,  we  will  take 
the  average  amount  of  exports  for  1879  and  1880: 
Lbs.  Butter.  Lbs.  Cheese. 

Exports,  1879 38,248,016     141,654,474 

1880 39,236,658     127,553,907 


Divided    by 2)77,484,674     269,208,361 


Yearly  average 38,742,337     134,604,190 

Add  butter  and  cheese  together.  .  38,742,337 


We  have  a  yearly  av.  export  of.  .173,346,527 
l>o;m:ls  of  product.     If  we  take  this  from  the  total  pro- 

tltict  of  1880 1,049,829,921  pounds 

173,346,527  pounds 

^V<J  ii.'ive 876,483,394  pounds 

')!'  product  for  home  consumption,  or  more  than  five  times 
:is  muA\  as  we  export.      This  is  a  consumption  of  17.47 


HISTORICAL.  11 

pounds  per  capita  for  our  50,155,783  inhabitants,  or  .59  of 
a  pound  less  than  in  1850,  when  it  was  18.60  pounds  per 
capita.  Does  not  this  indicate  the  folly  of  catering  for  a 
foreign  market  to  the  neglect  of  our  own? 

FORMS  OF  MILK  CONSUMPTION. 

It  is  estimated  by  good  judues  that  45  per  cent,  of  our 
milk  product  is  consumed  in  its  natural  state,  50  per 
cent,  is  used  in  butter  making,  and  5  per  cent,  is  made 
into  cheese.  The  fact  of  there  being  a  foreign  demand 
for  so  large  a  proportion  of  our  cheese,  has  led  everybody 
astray,  and  magnified  the  cheese  factor}  into  the  position 
of  supreme  importance. 

THE  PRIVATE  DAIRY  VS.  THE  FACTORY. 

Let  us  again  turn  to  the  census  of  1880,  and  see  how 
the  factory  product  compares  in  amount  and  importance 
with  the  product  of  the  private  dairy.  It  appears  by  the 
census  of  1880  that  the  number  of  pounds  of  dairy  pro- 
ducts made  in  factories  was  as  follows: 

Cheese  made  in  factories  . .  .215,885,361  Ibs. 

Butter      "       "        "         ....  29,411,784   " 


Total  factory  product. .  .245,307,145  Ibs. 

Cheese  made  on  farms 27,272,489  Ibs. 

Butter      "        "      "      777,250,287   " 


Total  farm  product 804,522,776  Ibs. 

Deduct  factory  product 245,307,145   " 

Excess  of  private  dairy.  .559,215,631  Ibs. 
or  considerably  more  than  double  the  total  factory  pro- 
duct. 


12  IIISTOIUCAL. 

Now,  let  us  make  a  comparison  by  values,  calling  the 
cheese  10  cents  and  the  butter  25  cents  a  pound.  We 
made  in  factories : 

Cheese,  215,885,301    Ibs.,  (>.i    10c.  $2 I, ,">&•, •>:',(> 
Butter,      20,411,784   Ibs.,  («    25c.       7.352,J)4(5 


Value  of  factory  prodir-t $39,941,482 

There  was  made  in  the  private  dairies: 

Cheese,  27,272,489   Ibs.,  @   lOe.    $     2,727,249 
Butter,  777,250,287   Ibs.,  (a   25c.      194,812,571 


Value  of  private  dairy  products  $197,039,820 
Deduct  value  of  factory  products      29,941,482 

In  favor  of  private  dairy $167,098,388 

In  short,  the  product  of  the  private  dairy  is  between 
three  and  four  times  larger  than  that  of  the  factory,  and 
nearly  seven  times  its  value.  Important  as  the  factory 
is  and  is  likely  to  become,  let  us  not  forget  the  private 
dairy  nor  overlook  the  home  interest  in  striving  for  a 
little  foreign  patronage. 

Notwithstanding  the  fault  with  the  census  that  is 
found  by  some,  the  census  is  the  most  reliable  source  of- 
statistical  information  about  the  dairy  that  we  have. 


N  S. 


T  is  not  every  novice  that  can  take  up  the  business  of 
dairying  and  curry  it  on  successfully  ;  yet,  some  of 
our  most  successful  dairymen  are  comparative  novi- 
ces in  the  business.  Quick  observation  and  sound  judg- 
ment are  important  qualities  in  a  dairyman.  These 
qualities  are  not  always  acquired  by  long  experience,  but 
are  oftener  the  generous  gifts  of  nature.  Hence,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  men  of  quick  discernment  step  into 
a  new  business  and  achieve  success  where  others  have 
met  only  years  of  failure.  Improvements  in  all  callings 
are  apt  to  be  made  by  sharp  lookers-on,  who  are  not  bred 
in  the  habits  of  routinism,  nor  prejudiced  against  radical 
innovations.  They  see  at  a  glance  where  the  plodder 
fails,  and  fearlessly  apply  the  remedy — often  a  short-cut 
to  ends  that  have  hitherto  been  reached  with  much  diffi- 
culty and  hard  labor.  And  here  is  where  the  real  inven- 
tor finds  his  greatest  field  of  usefulness. 

PASTURES. 

Sweet  pastures,  with  a  variety  of  nutritious  grasses 
growing  in  them,  are  essentials  to  success  in  dairying — 
especially  in  butter  making — in  summer.  Bitter  and 
other  mal-flavored  weeds  must  be  avoided,  as  they  flavor 


14  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

both  the  milk  and  the  product  manufactured  from  it.  The 
cows  must  not  be  worried,  nor  over- worked  in  rambling 
over  poor  pastures  to  get  sufficient  food. 

WATER. 

Plenty  of  clean  water  must  be  conveniently  at  hand 
for  the  cows  to  drink.  The  water  must  be  sweet  and 
clean  enough  for  the  human  stomach.  Abundance  of 
such  water  is  more  essential  in  the  pasture — for  the  cows 
to  drink  while  secreting  milk  that  contains  87  per  cent, 
of  water — than  it  is  in  the  daily-house,  where  a  small 
amount  of  water  will  answer,  if  ice  is  used,  and  hence  can 
more  easily  be  obtained  pure. 

WINTER  FOOD. 

In  winter,  the  food  must  be  in  proper  condition,  pro- 
perly balanced  between  the  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous 
materials,  and  in  full  supply — all  the  cow  can  digest  and 
assimilate.  At  least  one  ration  a  day  should  include 
sweet  ensilage,  roots,  or  other  succulent  food,  to  aid  in 
the  separation  of  the  butter  from  the  cream  by  action  of 
the  churn,  it  having  been  shown  that  all  dry  feed  not 
only  reduces  the  flow  of  milk,  but  makes  churning  slow 
and  difficult,  leaving  a  large  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
buttermilk. 

THE  STABLE. 

While  in  stable,  the  cow  must  also  have  plenty  of  pure 
air  and  sweet  water,  and  not  be  chilled  in  obtaining 
either.  Without  pure  air,  the  cow  becomes  debilitated 
and  diseased,  and  the  milk  impure  and  unwholesome. 


CONDITIONS.  15 

4 

Impure  water  both  taints  and  corrupts  the  product.  A 
proper  temperature — certainly  above  freezing — should 
be  kept  up.  Remember,  the  cow  standing  still  cannot 
resist  cold  as  she  could  if  she  were  free  to  move  about. 
It  is  cheaper  to  build  warm  stables — always  providing 
for  perfect  ventilation,  the  air  coining  in  at  the  head  and 
passing  oft'  in  the  rear  of  the  cow — and  even  to  resort  to 
artificial  heating,  than  to  compel  the  cow  to  burn  an  extra 
amount  of  carbonaceous  food  in  her  system  to  keep  up 
the  temperature  of  her  body.  Not  only  is  fuel  cheaper 
than  food,  but  the  system  of  the  cow  cannot  devote  to 
milk  secretion  the  energy  which  is  expending  in  secret- 
ing and  consuming  fat  to  maintain  a  proper  amount  of 
vital  heat. 

SHELTER. 

Proper  shelter  in  summer,  from  the  scorching  rays  of 
the  mid-day  sun,  and  from  beating  storms  and  winds,  is 
necessary.  This  should  be  easily  accessible-  Especially 
in  early  spring  and  late  fall  do  the  animals  suffer  severely 
from  exposure  to  the  cold  winds  and  storms  of  all  hours 
in  the  twenty-four. 

DAIRY   HOUSE. 

Every  dairyman  should  have  a  good  dairy  house  dis- 
tinct from  the  dwelling  apartments.  It  need  not,  neces- 
sarily, be  a  separate  building,  but  it  should  not  be  subject 
to  the  inflowing  of  odors  from  the  kitchen  and  sitting 
rooms.  The  dairy  house  should  be  so  constructed  that 
the  temperature  may  at  all  times  be  kept  under  per- 
fect control.  There  should  be  no  surrounding  cesspools 


16  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

or  other  mal-odorous  sources  of  taint,  and  the  ventilation 
should  be  free  without  perceptible  drafts  or  currents  of 
air.  No  matter  what  method  of  setting  milk  and  churn- 
ing may  be  adopted,  there  is  a  decide;!  advantage  in  hav- 
ing the  dairy  house,  or  any  other  workshop,  separate 
from  the  dwelling  apartments,  so  that  the  work  of  the 
one  shall  in  no  way  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  other. 
Almost  all  dairymen  fail,  to  some  extent,  in  not  having 
the  dairy  house  entirely  separate.  It  would  cost  but  lit- 
tle extra;  and  until  dairymen  look  upon  the  business  as 
their  life  work  and  build  and  plan  accordingly,  we  need 
not  expect  the  best  possible  success  in  dairying. 

CLEANLINESS. 

Cleanliness  everywhere  and  at  all  times  is  an  absolute 
necessity.  There  is  not  the  le;;st  clanger  of  being  too 
clean.  The  writer  has  never  3  et  seen  a  dairy  without 
defects  in  this  particular.  Yet,  most  people  mean  to  be 
clean,  and  suppose  they  are.  Lack  of  information  is 
often  the  cause  of  uncleanliness,  and  habit  goes  a  great 
way  in  making  people  indifferent  to  untidy  surroundings. 
It  is  safe  to  copy  thp  neat  points  found  in  every  dairy, 
as  well  as  to  avoid  the  offensive  ones.  As  Gov.  Seymour 
once  said,  "cleanliness  is  a  comparative  term."  It  is 
well  to  keep  making  comparisons  on  this  point,  until  no 
unfavorable  comparisons  with  anybody's  dairy  can  be- 
found;  and  these  comparisons  should  extend  to  liie 
surroundings  of  the  cows,  the  manner  of  milking,  the 
handling  of  the  milk,  the  cleansing  of  milk  utensils,  and 
all  the  processes  of  manipulation  from  beginning  to  end. 
The  dairy  house  should  not  only  look  clean,  but  be,  as  it 


CONDITIONS.  17 

were,  fragrant  with  neatness  and  sweetness.  And  it  is 
all-important  that  the  clothing  and  person  should  be 
clean  and  neat  to  a  fault.  A  sweet  temper,  even  is  no 
drawback. 

THE   HERD. 

Of  course,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  business  must 
be  had  or  be  acquired.  The  proper  selection  or  rearing 
of  dairy  stock  is  essential  to  success.  The  cow  should 
not  only  be  a  good  milker,  but  give  milk  suited  to  the 
line  of  dairying  pursued.  If  cheese  making  is  the  object, 
there  must  be  a  large  flow  of  milk  rich  in  caseine.  In 
butter  making,  a  large  flow  of  milk  is  not  essential,  but 
there  must  be  a  large  percentage  of  fat  in  it.  And  the 
breeding  must  be  such  as  to  keep  up  the  status  of  the 
herd.  Some  depend  on  purchasing  cows,  and  exercise 
great  care  and  judgment  in  so  doing.  In  exceptional 
cases,  a  herd  may  be  kept  up  in  this  way.  But  somebody 
must  breed  and  rear  good  cows,  or  soon  none  can  be  had 
at  any  price.  As  a  rule,  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  duty  of 
every  dairyman  to  breed  from  the  best  blood  obtainable, 
and  to  rear  the  heifer  calves  from  his  best  cows.  Unless 
this  condition  is  fulfilled,  the  dairy  as  a  whole  must  run 
down.  It  is  only  by  constant  care  and  breeding  from  the 
best  that  the  present  status  can  be  maintained,  and  pos- 
sibfy  a  little  progress  made.  It  should  be  the  ambition 
of  every  dairyman  to  constantly  improve  the  value  of  his 
herd,  and  to  make  progress  in  ever}r  department  of  his 
dairy,  while  improving  the  quality  of  his  product. 


L3A.1RV    STOCK. 


is  no  more  important  subject  connected  with 
the  dairy  than  that  of  the  selection  and  rearing  of 
stock.  The  herd  is  the  fountain  head.  If  there  is 
failure  here  there  is  failure  everywhere.  Many  a  dairy- 
man has  remained  poor  all  his  days  because  he  spent  his 
time  and  energies  on  an  unprofitable  herd.  This  is  the 
first  thing  to  be  looked  after.  The  selection  of  a  herd  is 
a  matter  of  both  knowledge  and  judgment— knowledge 
of  the  characteristics  of  breeds  and  of  the  requisites  of  a 
good  dairy  cow,  and  judgment  as  to  whether  the  individ- 
ual cow  in  question  possesses  these  characteristics  and 
requisites.  We  will  give  some  of  the  generally  acknow- 
ledged characteristics  of  the  different  breeds,  first  indi- 
cating, as  far  as  we  can  in  words,  some  of  the  points  of  a 
good  dairy  cow. 

POINTS  OF  A  MILKER. 

• 

The  dairy  cow  should  be  deep  and  broad  through  the 
flunk — deeper  and  broader  than  through  the  shoulders — 
but  must  have  a  comparatively  large  chest,  giving  capa- 
city of  lungs  and  stomach,  for  she  must  have  good  diges- 
tive powers  and  inhale  plenty  of  fresh  air.  Her  hips 


DAIRY   STOCK..  1U 

should  be  broad,  setting  her  thighs  well  apart,  and  her 
thighs  should  be  rather  thin.  This  gives  space  for  a 
large  udder,  which  is  indispensable,  for  it  is  unreasonable 
to  expect  a  large  flow  of  milk  from  an  udder  of  small 
capacity.  The  udder  should  be  soft  and  fleshless  when 
empty,  and  extend  high  up  in  the  rear.  It  should  also 
extend  w'ell  forward,  and  from  it  should  extend  further 
forward  large*  protruding  milk-veins.  If  they  are  dou- 
ble and  are  crooked  and  knotty,  all  the  better.  These 
veins  carry  off  the  blood  after  it  has  passed  through  the 
udder  and  performed  its  part  in  elaborating  milk,  and 
their  size  indicates  the  amount  of  blood  employed,  and 
by  inference  the  amount  of  milk  secreted.  So  the  es- 
cutcheon, which  should  extend  out  on  the  thighs  and  run 
with  even  edges  and  unbroken  surface  up  to  or  near  the 
vulva,  is  supposed  to  be  some  indication  of  the  extent  of 
the  arterial  system  that  contributes  blood  for  the  elabo- 
ration of  milk.  The  neck  should  be  slender,  taper  and 
thin,  the  horns  small  and  slender,  the  face  dishing  or 
flat,  the  eyes  wide  apart  and  mild  and  intelligent  in  ex- 
pression, the  muzzle  broad  when  viewed  from  the  front 
but  thin  when  viewed  from  the  side,  and  the  lips  thick 
and  strong.  A  long,  slender  tail  is  indicative  of  good 
breeding.  A  yellow  skin,  or  one  which  secretes  an  oily 
yellow  scurf— especially  seen  in  the  ears,  along  the  back 
and  at  the  end  of  the  tail — -is  considered  a  sign  of  milk 
rich  in  fat,  The  skin  should  be  soft  and  pliable,  the  hair 
fine,  and  the  coat  glossy.  We  prefer  rather  light  to  very 
dark  colors.  Our  observation  is  that  a  black  cow  never 
gives  as  rich  milk  as  one  in  which  the  white  predomi- 


20  HINTS   OX   DAIRYING . 

nates.  In  other  colors  we  have  not  noted  such  a  differ- 
ence. Viewed  fro  hi  the  front,  the  general  shape  of  the 
cow  should  be  a  little  wedging — thinner  in  front  and 
thicker  in  the  rear.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  cow 
should  taper  from  rear  to  front,  with  the  upper  and  low- 
er lines  generally  straight,  with  little  or  no  slope  from 
the  rump  to  the  tail. 

DUTCII-FKIESIAN. 

For  general  or  all  purposes,  the  Dutch-Friesian  cow 
is  not  excelled.  She  may  be  equaled,  but  where  is  her 
superior  V  We  use  the  name  Dutch-Friesian  because  it 
expresses  precisely  what  we  mean— the  black  and  white 
cattle  of  Friesian  origin  which  have  been  bred  pure  in 
Friesland  or  North  Holland,  and  not  the  cattle  called 
"Holstein  "  in  this  country,  which  have  been  picked  up 
promiscuously  in  the  different  provinces  of  Germany, 
because  of  their  peculiar  markings,  but  without  reference 
to  their  breeding.  Some  of  these  may  be  pure  bred,  but 
they  are  liable  to  disappoint  the  honest  purchaser,  who 
buys  them  for  and  pays  the  price  of  pure  bloods.  The 
Dutch-Friesian  cow  is  large,  readily  takes  on  flesh  when 
not  in  milk,  and  therefore  makes  splendid  beef.  She  is 
Hardy,  docile  and  easily  cared  for.  No  other  breed 
equals  her  in  yield  of  milk.  Her  milk  is  of  average 
richness,  and  she  gives  so  much  of  it  that  it  makes  her 
valuable  as  a  butter  cow.  Microscopists  say  the  fat  glob- 
ules in  her  milk  are  very  small.  This  makes  it  some- 
what difficult  to  separate  the  fats  from  the  milk  for  the 
purposes  of  butter  making.  Though  the  fat  globules  are 
quite  uniform  in  size,  it  requires  a  long  time  to  raise  the 


Dutch-Friesian   Bull,   MOOIE,  26    D.   F.   H.   B. 

Property  of  llie  Unadilla  Valley   Stock    Breeders'   As- 
sociation, \Vliitesto\\n,  N.  Y. 


JACOB  A  HARTO&,  2 .  D.F.H.B. 
Dutch-Friesian  Cow,  JACOBA  HARTOG,  2  D.  F.  H.  B. 
Property  of  the  Unadilla  Valley   Stock  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation, Wbitestown.  N.  Y- 


DAIRY  STOCK.  21 

cream  by  the  ordinary  methods,  and  the  separation  is  not 
complete;  but  this  makes  the  skim-milk  all  the  more 
valuable  for  cheese  making,  feeding,  or  to  market.  With 
ihe  centrifuge,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  out 
all  the  cream.  For  market,  or  family  use,  or  for  cheese 
making,  the  milk  of  the  Dutch-Friesian  cow,  because  ot 
the  slowness  with  which  the  cream  separates  from  the 
milk,  is  superior.  It  is  rich  in  caseine,  and  therefore 
very  valuable  for  cheese  making.  We  could  not  recom- 
mend any  other  breed  with  greater  confidence.  Dutch- 
Friesian  grades — the  result  of  using  pure-blooded  Dutch- 
Friesian  bulls  on  common  or  other  stock — make  very 
valuable  dairy  stock. 

THE   JERSEY. 

Perhaps  as  widely  separated  from  the  Dutch-Friesian 
cow  as  any  breed  is  the  Jersey.  She  certainly  is  the 
smallest  of  all  as  the  Dutch-Friesian  is  the  largest— un- 
less we  except  the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford.  The  Jersey 
gives  a  small  mess  of  milk,  but  it  is  very  rich  in  fat,  and 
the  fat  readily  separates  from  the  milk,  leaving  the  skim- 
milk  very  blue  and  poor.  It  is  not  generally  considered 
very  rich  in  caseine,  and  it  is  therefore  as  poor  and 
worthless  as  skim-milk  well  can  be.  But,  considering 
size,  the  Jersey  is  conceded  to  yield  more  butter  than 
any  other  breed.  The  cream  globules  are  said  to  be  very 
large  and  very  uniform  in  size.  Hence,  they  not  only 
readily  separate  from  the  milk,  but  churn  easily.  The 
Jersey  is  out  of  the  question  as  a  beef  animal,  there  is  so 
little  of  her  carcass;  but  we  never  heard  complaint  of 


22  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

the  quality  of  the  meat.  But  lack  of  beef  qualities  we  do 
not  consider  a  very  serious  objection  in  a  dairy  cow.  We 
get  our  profit  from  her  in  the  dairy.  We  cannot  reason- 
ably expect  all  good  qualities  in  one  animal  or  one  breed. 
Nature  is  nowhere  thus  partial  in  her  gifts.  We  find 
some  good  quality  predominating  in  every  one  of  the  sev- 
eral breeds,  and  we  must  select  accordingly  to  suit  our 
line  of  dairying  and  our  circumstances.  The  Jersey  is  a 
fawn-like,  beautiful  animal,  with  a  mild  eye  and  intelli- 
gent face,  hut  usually  has  a  quite  angular  frame,  as  a 
consequence  of  her  excessive  dairy  qualities.  She  is  ra- 
ther tender,  and  cannot  bear  the  exposure  and  harsh 
treatment  that  some  of  the  breeds  can.  But  no  animal 
ought  to  receive  such  treatment.  Kindness  and  comfort- 
able quarters  are  due  to  all  domestic  animals,  and  such 
care,  with  proper  feed,  is  the  most  profitable  to  the 
owner.  The  Jersey  will  not  stand  harsh  usage;  but 
for  the  man  of  refined  taste  and  good  judgment,  who 
wants  a  nice  thing  and  to  turn  out  fancy  goods,  she  is 
most  decidedly  the  cow,  and  will  not  disappoint  him. 
Solid  colors  and  black  muzzles  are  the  fashion  in  Jerseys, 
but  we  are  not  aware  that  there  is  any  practical  merit  in 
these.  They  have  been  bred  down  in  size,  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  English  Lord,  who  wants  them  as  pets  on  his 
lawns.  This  is  rather  against  than  in  favor  of  the  Jersey 
as  a  dairy  cow,  as  it  must  of  necessity  reduce  her  capa- 
city for  converting  food  into  milk  and  cream. 

THE  GUERNSEY 

There  are  but  few  of  these   animals    as   yet  in  this 
country,  but  the  few  that  have  been  imported  and  bred 


DAIRY    STOCK.  23 

here  have  proved  very  satisfactory  and  promising.  They 
are  pale  red  or  buff  red  and  white.  The  colors  are  about 
in  equal  proportions,  though  the  red  may  predominate. 
They  are  considerably  larger  than  the  Jersey  and  possess 
all  the  good  qualities  of  the  latter.  Indeed,  there  is 
pretty  good  evidence  that  these  breeds  have  the  same 
origin,  and  that  the  Jersey  is  the  Guernsey  bred  down  in 
size  and  bred  also  for  solid  colors.  The  Guernsey  is  just 
as  beautiful  in  face  and  form  as  the  Jersey,  and  we  think 
rather  hardier  and  possesses  more  capacity.  For  all 
practical  purposes,  we  should  be  inclined  to  give  prefer- 
ence to  the  Guernsey,  which  has  no  rival  in  her  line, 
except  the  Jersey.  This  breed  can  lay  claim  to  some 
beef  qualities,  because  of  its  size.  It  is  destined  to  be- 
come a  popular  favorite  in  the  butter  dairy  and  as  a 
family  cow. 

THE  AYRSHIRE. 

This  breed  is  a  great  favorite  with  many.  It  is  small 
— scarcely  larger  than  the  Guernsey — and  is  remarkably 
nimble  and  hardy,  thriving  on  scant  feed  and  in  rough 
pastures  where  some  of  the  other  breeds  would  starve. 
The  Ayrshires  are  red  or  red  and  white  and  give  a  large 
flow  of  milk,  fairly  rich  in  caseine  and  in  butter.  The 
breed  has  its  phenomenal  cows,  both  as  milkers  and  as 
butter  makers.  The  cream  globules  of  the  milk  are 
quite  irregular  in  size,  and  hence  do  not  readily  separate 
from  the  milk  by  ordinary  methods  of  cream  raising. 
But  this  fact  makes  the  milk  all  the  better  for  family 
use,  for  marketing  and  for  the  cheese  factory,  or  for  both 


24  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

butter  and  cheese  from  th.-^  same  milk.  The  Ayrshire, 
like  the  Dutch-Friesian,  may  be  called  a  good  general 
purpose  cow.  The  greatest  objections  to  this  breed  have 
been  its  nervousness  and  its  small  teats;  but  both  of 
these  may  be  overcome  by  gentle  treatment  and  careful 
breeding — indeed,  have  been  overcome  in  many  cases. 
For  rough,  hilly  pastures,  there  is  no  better  cow  than  the 
Ayrshire.  But  although  she  can  stand  some  hard  fare, 
she  responds  quickly  to  gentle  and  generous  usage. 
Well-selected  and  well-bred  Ayrshires  make  a  splendid 
dairy  herd. 

THE   SHORTHORN. 

This  has  long  been  a  popular  breed,  and  there  may 
be  said  to  be  a  strong  popular  prejudice  in  its  favor.  Its 
undisputed,  and  perhaps  unequaled,  beef  qualities  have 
been  its  strongest  recommend.  It  was,  however,  origi- 
nally a  milch  breed,  and  some  families  of  the  breed  are 
still  hard  to  excel  for  the  dairy.  But  it  is  quite  difficult 
to  select  and  maintain  a  milking  strain,  so  long  have  the 
Shorthorns  been  bred  for  "beef  and  beauty,"  and  so 
effectually  have  the  milking  qualities  been  bred  out  of 
them.  In  some  of  the  beef  families,  the  cows  do  not  give 
milk  enough  to  support  their  calves.  Yet,  many  dairy- 
men cling  to  this  breed  and  keep  unprofitable  dairies  be- 
cause they  can  get  a  good  price  for  the  old  carcass  as 
beef  when  the  cow  is  no  longer  tolerable  in  the  dairy 
herd.  This  is  short-sightedness,  and  holding  beef  for 
market  too  long  and  at  too  great  a  cost.  The  profit 
should  be  in  the  dairy  products,  where  a  dairy  herd  is 


DAIRY    STOCK.  25 

kept,  and  beef  should  be  altogether. a  subordinate  con- 
sideration. The  Shorthorn  is  usually  red  or  roan,  and 
occasionally  red  and  white,  though  we  always  suspect 
other  blood — Ayrshire,  for  instance — in  the  spotted  ani- 
mals. As  a  rule,  we  do  not  consider  the  Shorthorns  as 
really  profitable  dairy  cows,  though  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions where  a  milking  strain  is  cultivated.  But  there 
is  no  disputing  their  value  for  beef. 

THE  DEVON. 

This  is  one  of  the  choicest  and  most  reliable  of  the 
dairy  breeds.  They  are  uniformly  red,  of  fair  size,  have 
a  sprightly  appearance,  and  reproduce  their  like  more 
certainly  than  any  other  breed  that  we  know.  As  has 
been  said,  they  are  so  prepotent,  uniform,  and  distinct 
from  the  other  breeds  that  they  may  be  called  a  race  of 
cattle.  Their  history  runs  back  hundreds  of  years,  until 
it  is  lost  in  tradition  and  uncertainty.  But  origin  and 
history  are  of  little  consequence,  since  it  is  the  living 
fact — the  cattle  themselves — that  wTe  have  to  deal  with. 
The  cows  give  a  good  sized  mess  of  milk — large  milkers 
have  appeared  among  them  as  among  other  breeds— and 
their  milk  is  very  rich.  It  is  not  as  rich  as  the  Jersey's 
and  the  Guernsey's  milk,  but  there  is  more  of  it,  and 
it  approximates  the  richness  of  the  milk  of  these 
breeds  more  closely  than  that  of  any  other.  Hence,  they 
are  excellent  butter  cows,  and  justly  favorites  among 
those  who  are  the  most  familiar  with  them  and  know 
how  to  breed  them.  Healthy,  hardy,  and  easy  to  keep, 
they  are  adapted  to  almost  any  circumstances,  and  are 


26  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

excellent  as  butter  or  family  cows,  while  the  males, 
owing -to  their  activity  and  endurance,  make  splendid 
oxen — both  useful  and  fine  looking.  They  make  fine 
beef  and  a  fair  amount  of  it.  They  would  be  useful  ani- 
mals for  crossing  on  the  common  stock  and  grades  of  the 
Northwest,  where  the  climate  is  rigorous  and  Loth  but- 
ter and  beef  are  objects  of  importance.  As  workers, 
they  would  be  very  useful  there.  They  will  stand  as 
much  hardship  as  any  breed  we  have,  and  as  much  as  any 
breed  ought  to,  but  will  do  better  under  favorable  than 
under  unfavorable  circumstances.  Like  all  other  breeds, 
they  respond  readily  to  kind  and  generous  treatment,  it 
being  a  universal  law  that  want  and  abuse  are  sources  of 
loss  in  the  keeping  of  stock,  the  best  results  always  fol- 
lowing the  best  treatment.  They  will  do  well  on  level, 
hilly  or  rough  pastures,  because  of  their  nimbleness  and 
endurance:  while  the  certainty  of  their  breedidg  makes 
it  perhaps  less  difficult  to  perpetuate  their  good  qualities 
than  is  the  case  with  any  of  the  other  breeds.  In  short, 
they  are  the  most  prepotent  and  uniform  of  all,  give  a 
good-sized  mess  of  very  rich  milk,  are  easy  to  keep,  hardy 
and  active,  and  fill  a  sphere  which  it  would  be  difficult  to 
fill  without  them.  We  do  not  know  how  their  milk  ap- 
pears under  the  microscope,  but  we  judge  from  the  char- 
acteristics of  these  animals  that  the  butter  globules  are 
above  the  average  size  and  very  uniform.  Hence  the 
cream  rises  readily,  is  easily  churned,  and  makes  a  rich- 
colored,  fine-flavored  butter.  It  is  a  little  remarkable 
that  the  breeders  of  these  cattle  have  not  succeeded  in 
getting  up  a  "boom;"  but  the  probability  is  that  no 


DAIRY  STOCK.  27 

strenuous  and  persistent  effort  has  been  made  in  this 
direction.  Their  superior  merits  are  unquestioned  and 
unquestionable. 

THE   AMERICAN  HOLDERS  ESS. 

This  is  a  new  breed,  and  its  reputation  is  mainly  of  a 
local  character.  But  it  is  not  without  its  representatives 
in  most  of  the  Northern  and  Northwestern  States,  and  its 
fame  has  traveled  quite  extensively,  considering  the  qui- 
et and  unpretentious  manner  in  which  it  was  originated 
and  has  been  bred.  In  some  particulars  it  is  the  most 
uniform  of  the  breeds,  even  more  uniform  than  the 
Devon.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  quality  of  the  milk, 
which  is  as  uniform  throughout  the  herd  as  if  it  were 
drawn  from  a  single  cow,  the  quality  varying,  where  the 
keep  is  the  same,  only  with  the  age  of  the  cow,  and  the 
lapse  of  time  since  calving.  The  yield  of  milk,  though 
not  excessive,  is  large  and  very  rich — almost  equal  to 
that  of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  and  quite  equal  to  that 
of  the  Devon.  It  churns  easily,  and  the  butter  com- 
pletely separates  from  the  buttermilk,  rendering  a  second 
churning  of  no  avail.  Three  hundred  pounds  per  cow  a 
year  of  high-colored  and  fine-flavored  butter  is  a  fair 
average  for  a  herd.  Few,  even  of  selected  herds,  of  other 
animals  equal  this.  We  are  not  aware  of  phenomenal 
milkers  among  the  Holderness  cattle,  unless  all  can  be 
called  such,  their  chief  characteristic  being  uniformity. 
They  breed,  it  may  be  said,  perfectly  true  to  type,  so  that 
all  are  excellent.  The  reason  for  this  uniformity  is  plain, 
and  is  found  in  the  origin  of  the  breed  in  the  closest  pos- 


28  HINTS   OX    DAIRYING. 

sible  inbreeding  for  thirty  years.  They  originated  from 
a  cow  with  calf  which  was  bought  by  Mr.  Truman  A. 
Cole,  of  Solsville,  N.  Y.,  of  a  drover  who  had  just  pur- 
chased it  at  auction  in  Knoxboro,  N.  Y.,  v;here  a  herd  of 
pure-bloods,  because  of  the  death  of  the  owner,  had  been 
sold  under  the  auctioneer's  hammer.  The  cow  dropped 
a  bull  calf,  which  was  bred  to  its  mother,  then  to  both 
mother  and  sister;  and  this  system  of  close  inbreeding, 
even  sire  to  daughter,  as  well  as  brother  to  sister,  has 
been  continued  down  to  the  present  time,  or  for  thirty 
years,  as  before  stated.  This  has  fixed  and  intensified 
the  qualities,  and  at  the  same  time  secured  the  greatest 
possible  uniformity  and  really  established  a  breed,  sep- 
arate and  distinct  from  all  others.  This  is  the  way  in 
which  all  the  valuable  breeds  have  been  established,  and 
this  is  the  first  persistent  and  successful  effort  at  estab- 
lishing a  purely  American  breed  that  has  ever  been 
made.  While  carefully  watching  results  and  selecting 
for  breeding  purposes,  Mr.  Cole  has  steadily  refused  to 
be  turned  from  his  course,  or  to  change  his  purpose  of 
establishing  a  uniform  butter  breed,  and  of  testing  the 
fallacy  of  the  popular  notion  about  the  injurious  effects 
of  inbreeding.  His  thirty  years  of  the  closest  inbreeding 
have  shown  no  such  disastrous  effects,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  produced  only  good  ones.  There  is  no  failure 
in  form  or  constitution.  The  only  marked  external 
change,  save  in  securing  the  greatest  uniformity,  has 
been  in  the  gradual  change  of  color.  The  original  ani- 
mals were  pale  red  and  white,  the  white  being  along  the 
back  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail,  down  the  hind-quar- 


American   Holdcrness  Bull,   LEWIS  F.  ALLEN, 

at    16  months. 
Pro;  ert\  of  T.  A.  Cole,  Sol.-ville,  N.  Y. 


American   Holderness  Cow,  ADELAIDE    17th. 

Property  of  T.  A.  Cole,  Solsville,  N.  Y. 


DAIRY    STOCK.  29 

ters,  and  along  the  belly  to  the  shoulders.  This  distribu- 
tion of  the  light  and  dark  colors  has  remained  essentially 
the  same,  but  the  light  red  gradually  turned  to  dark  red, 
then  to  brindle  and  finally  to  black.  The  later  bred  ani- 
mals are  all  black  and  white.  But  the  calves,  when  first 
dropped,  are  still  red  and  white,  the  red  changing  to 
black  when  the  first  coat  of  hair  is  shed.  This  is  proba- 
bly one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  inbreeding  on 
record,  as  the  breed  is  also  one  of  the  most  remarkable. 
All  who  have  tried  this  stock  are  remarkably  well  pleased 
with  it,  and  calves  readily  sell  for  $100  a  head  with  a 
demand  gi eater  than  the  supply — and  this  without  any 
newspaper  advertising.  The  breed  is  endorsed  by  Mr. 
Lewis  F.  Allen,  former  editor  of  the  Shorthorn  Herd- 
Book,  and  author  of  a  work  on  cattle  that  stands  second 
to  none  as  authority.  This  endorsement  has  appeared  in 
print  over  Mr.  Allen's  signature,  as  have  the  favorable 
opinions  of  many  other  good  judges.  In  the  latest  edi- 
tion of  his  book  on  the  Cattle  of  America,  he  says : 

u  I  never  saw7  a  more  uniform  herd  of  cows,  in  their 
general  appearance  and  excellence,  which  latter  quality 
they  daily  prove  in  the  milk  they  produce.  *  *  Com- 
pared with  ordinary  dairy  herds,  the  uniformity  in  yield 
testifies  to  their  purity  of  breeding  and  management." 

Col.  Weld,  who  saw  these  cattle  on  exhibition  at  the 
New  York  State  Fair,  held  at  Utica  in  1879,  said  of  them, 
in  the  November  number  of  the  American  Agriculturist ; 

"The  cattle  of  this  '  Cole-Holderness  breed'  are  of 
good  size  and  fair  form  as  beef  animals.  *  *  They 
are  deep-bodied,  with  large  udders  and  teats,  with  excel- 
lent escutcheons,  great  swollen  and  tortuous  milk-veins 


80  HINTS  OX  DAIItYIKtt. 

and  skins  as  yellow  as  Guernsey's.  The  interior  of  their 
ears  was  almost  like  orange-peel.  The  butter  made  from 
their  milk  *  *  *  showed  admirable  color  and  keeping 
qualities.  *  *  *  Could  we  test  the  various  breeds  of 
cattle,  with  the  view  of  determining  with  accuracy  which 
is  the  most  profitable  dairy  cow  for  all  purposes — butter, 
cheese,  veal,  and  ultimately  beef — giving  to  each  its  fair 
weight  in  the  scale  of  excellence,  I  would  not  be  sur- 
prised if  Mr.  Cole's  breed  would  win  the  distinction  of 
being  the  most  useful  of  all." 

INBREEDING. 

A  word  here  about  inbreeding  will  not  be  out  of 
place.  It  may  be  disastrous,  or  it  may  be  beneficial.  So 
also  may  be  crossing  or  grading.  The  evil  as  well  as  the 
good  qualities  are  developed  and  intensified.  Like  be- 
gets like.  Couple  animals  having  the  same  bad  points, 
and  these  points  will  be  increased  and  strengthened. 
Couple  those  with  good  points,  and  corresponding  results 
tollow — that  is,  the  good  are  increased  and  strengthened. 
But  if  one  animal  has  one  point  to  excess,  so  as  to  become 
a  deformity,  and  the  other  is  deformed  by  lack  of  this 
same  point,  it  is  both  safe  and  advantageous  to  breed  them 
together,  as  the  result  is  likely  to  be  a  medium  betwyeen 
the  two.  So,  whatever  the  manner  of  breeding — inbreed- 
ing, crossing  or  grading — the  good  or  evil  results  depend 
altogether  on  the  characteristics  of  the  animals  coupled. 
Inbreeding  intensifies  and  fixes  the  qualities,  be  they 
good  or  bad. 

SWISS. 

There  have  been  a  few  importations  of  Swiss  cattle, 
which  are  short-legged  and  strong-boned,  and  hence  well 


DAIIIY   STOCK.  31 

adapted  to  hilly  regions.  Some  of  these  have  made 
splendid  butter  records— from  500  to  over  700  pounds  of 
butter  in  a  year.  We  should  have  great -hopes  of  them 
for  the  mountainous  sections  of  our  country;  but  as  yet 
importation  and  breeding  of  this  stock  is  not  extensive 
enough  to  permit  of  their  availability  to  any  considerable 
extent  for  dairy  purposes. 

POLLED. 

The  polled  or  hornless  cattle  are  great  favorites  with 
some  of  the  Western  people,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  get 
up  a  boom  on  them.  But  they  not  only  lack  in  numbers, 
but  in  the  essential  quality  of  a  large  flow  of  milk,  or  of 
a  very  rich  one.  The  best  information  we  can  get  does 
not  indicate  usefulness  for  the  dairy.  Neither  do  they 
excel  several  of  the  other  breeds  for  beef.  Their  chief 
recommend  appears  to  be  their  destitution  of  horns, 
which  in  our  eye  is  far  from  a  mark  of  beauty.  It  gives 
them  a  sort  of  bald,  unfinished  look  that  is  anything  but 
pleasing.  We  prefer,  for  looks,  short,  well-turned  horns. 
But  of  course,  without  horns  there  is  no  hooking,  but 
pushing  is  by  no  means  aovided.  Besides,  in  some  cases 
we  have  known  a  lack  of  horns  to  make  it  difficult  to 
fasten  the  animals  in  stanchions  or  with  ropes.  This 
may  not  be  true  of  the  cows ;  but  we  were  cognizant  of 
an  instance  on  the  ISTew  York  State  Fair  grounds  where 
a  polled  bull  was  constantly  getting  loose.  His  neck  was 
so  thick  tlfat  he  could  slip  his  head  through  anyplace 
not  tight  enough  to  choke  him.  As  to  disposition,  we 
presume  the  lack  of  horns  would  not  make  the  bulls  any 


32  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

more  amiable.  However,  we  have  nothing  to  say  against 
this  kind  of  stock,  and  would  advise  all  who  like  them  to 
keep  them.  If  horns  are  objectionable,  it  is  easy  to  pre- 
vent them  from  growing  on  any  stock  by  removing  the 
first  appearance  of  them  on  the  calf.  This  can  be  done 
without  much  pain  to  the  calf  and  without  much  trouble 
to  one  who  knows  how  to  do  it.  It,  as  we  understand, 
requires  no  great  skill,  and  ean  hardly  be  said  to  come 
under  the  head  of  cruelty  to  animals.  It  is  nothing  like 
as  painful  as  castration. 

IIEllEFOHDS. 

The  Herefords  are  having  quite  a  boom  in  the  West, 
but  it  is  not  as  dairy  stock,  but  as  superior  for  beef.  We 
have  seen  no  strong  claims  put  in  for  them  for  dairy 
purposes.  The  few  we  have  seen  did  not  seem  to  indicate 
any  great  dairy  qualities,  nor  have  any  of  the  numerous 
portraits  we  have  seen  published  borne  the  marks  of 
dairy  stock.  But  the  claim  of  beef  qualities  we  believe 
is  well  founded.  Their  great  rivals  in  this  line  are  the 
Shorthorns. 

COMMON    STOCK. 

We  have  not  mentioned  the  so-called  "  Native  "  stock 
as  a  dairy  breed,  because  it  is  not  a  breed,  but  a  mixture 
of  breeds — crazy-quilt  stock.  We  would  not  be  under- 
stood as  considering  it  of  no  value  for  dairy  purposes,  for 
when  carefully  selected,  a  dairy  herd  of  commonn  stock 
may  be  very  valuable.  Great  milkers  and  great  butter 
makers  are  not  uncommon  among  them ;  but  there  is  such 
a  mixture  of  blood  in  their  veins  that  there  is  no  guar- 


DAIRY    STO:   K.  38 

antee  of  their  producing  their  like.  They  originally 
sprang  from  the  best  animals  that  the  early  emigrants 
could  select  to  bring  over  with  them  from  Europe.  But 
they  were  subsequently  crjss-bre.l  so  promiscuously  that 
no  trace  of  the  original  blood  can  be  discovered  with  any 
certainty.  They  were  also  subjected  to  groat  exposure 
and  hardship,  with  scanty  food,  which  had  a  greatly  de- 
teriorating tendency.  But,  perhaps  worst  of  all,  there 
was  no  careful  selection  of  males  for  breeding  purposes, 
nor  any  attempt  at  judicious  coupling  for  improvement, 
or  for  even  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  status.  In 
short,  the  entire  treatment  and  all  the  surroundings  had 
a  deteriorating  influence  and  a  tendency  to  the  produc- 
tion of  scrubs.  If  we  were  to  take  all  the  existing  pure- 
blood  stock  and  breed  it  together  promiscuously,  while 
at  the  same  time  subjecting  it  to  harsh  treatment  and 
neglect,  it  would  not  require  a  very  long  period  to  reduce 
it  to  the  same  mongrel  and  scrub  condition  in  which  we 
now  find  the  common  stock  of  the  country.  Yet.  some  of 
our  common  stock  make  excellent  crosses,  when  "pure- 
blood  males  are  used  But  no  improvement  or  valuable 
results  could  come  from  using  common  stock  bulls  on 
pure-blood  or  other  cows.  The  male  has  the  controlling 
influence,  and  to  the  constant  use  of  pure-blood  males 
must  we  look  for  the  improvement  of  the  common  stock 
of  the  country  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  existing 
status  of  the  pure-bloods ;  and  not  only  must  we  use  pure- 
blood  males,  but  keep  up  a  constant  and  careful  selection 
of  the  best.  Neither  should  we  trust  to  cross-bred  or 
grade  bulls  for  breeding  purposes;  for  the  progeny  will 

5 


34  HINTS   ON   DAIRYING. 

inherit  the  traits  of  ancestors  on  one  side  or  the  other, 
and  hence  will  lack  in  uniformity,  both  in  appearance 
and  in  quality.  When  we  use  a  grade  bull,  the  result  is 
just  the  opposite  of  what  it  is  when  we  use  a  pure  blood. 
With  the  latter,  we  get  half-bloods,  then  quarter,  then 
eighths,  sixteenths,  thirty-seconds,  and  so  on,  toward  pure 
blood;  but  with  a  half-blood  grade  bull,  the  first  off- 
spring from  common »stock  has  only  one-fourth  pure 
blood,  the  next  cross  has  only  one-eighth,  the  third  one- 
sixteenth  pure  blood,  and  so  on — reducing  the  purity  in 
the  same  ratio  as  the  use  of  pure  blood  improves  it—if 
we  continue  to  breed  from  the  grade  male  offspring.  If 
we  always  use  a  half-blood  male,  there  may  be  a  slight 
improvement  in  the  blood.  But  the  improvement  is  too 
slow  and  the  benefit  too  uncertain  to  make  the  use  of  a 
grade  bull  advisable  when  a  pure  blood  can  be  had. 


STOCK. 


AVING  briefly  glanced  at  the  characteristics  of  the 
different  breeds,  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  a 
.few  words  about  breeding  and  rearing  dairy  stock. 
There  are  three  things  to  be  considered : 

1.  Selection. 

2.  Coupling. 

3.  Care. 

SELECTION. 

By  selection,  we  mean  not  only  the  selection  of  the 
breed  adapted  to  the  line  of  dairying  pursued,  but  the 
selection  of  the  individual  animals  to  breed  and  rear  ani- 
mals from,  and  especially  the  bull  to  be  used  on  the  herd. 
This  male  should  have  a  good  pedigree — that  is,  be  the 
lineal  descendant  of  animals  known  to  possess  the  qual- 
ities desired  in  the  future  herd.  This  is  all-important; 
for  however  well-formed  and  comely  he  may  be,  he  will 
transmit  the  qualities  of  his  ancestors  as  surely  as  like 
begets  like.  This  fact  can  never  be  safely  ignored.  Milk 
and  butter  qualities,  in  a  dairy  herd,  must  take  prece- 
dence over  beauty  of  form,  however  desirable  the  latter 
may  be.  The  cows  to  rear  stock  from  should  be  selected, 
as  far  as  possible,  on  the  same  principle.  Pedigree  is 


36 

not  of  as  much  consequence  in  a  cow,  so  far  as  practical 
results  are  concerned,  though  it  helps  insure  certainly  in 
the  quality  of  the  offspring  when  that  of  the  cow,  as  well 
as  of  the  bull,  is  right.  But  we  may  safely  venture,  on 
raising  the  calves  of  a  good  milker,  as  the  probabilities 
are  that  the  offspring  will  inherit  the  qualities'  of  the 
sire,  while  it  may  also  inherit  the  qualities  of  the  dam, 
though  she  he  of  the  most  mongrel  or  mixed  blood.  If 
there  is  failure,  however,  it  need  not  go  beyond  that  one 
animal — unless  an  attempt  is  made  to  use  a  grade  bull 
on  a  nondescript  dam,  in  which  case  prepotency  is  weak- 
ened and  mongrel  ism  may  show  in  the  offspring.  But 
grade  bulls  should  never  be  used  when  it  is  possible  to 
have  the  use  of  the  right  kind  of  pure  blood,  which  is 
always  stronger  than  mixed  blood,  and  hence  a  pure 
blood  sire  is  pretty  sure  to  transmit  the  qualities  of  his 
herd  and  family,  in  a  great  degree,  even  when  coupled 
with  a  cow  of  uncertain  blood.  In  breeding,  the  one  bull 
makes  half  the  herd,  and  when  used  on  common  stock, 
the  offspring  will  always  be  half-bloods  the  first  gener- 
ation. The  second  generation  they  become  three-quarter 
bloods;  the  third  seven  eighths;  the  fourth  fifteen-six- 
teenth, and  so  on,  constantly  approaching,  but  never 
reaching,  purity.  For  all  dairy  purposes,  however,  they 
become  practically  as  good  as  pure-bloods.  But  if  the 
breeding  is  the  other  way- — that  is,  if  a  scrub  bull  is  used 
on  pure-blood  cows — the  degeneration  to  the  scrub  status 
is  in  precisely  the  same  ratio  that  we  have  just  given  for 
improvement  when  pure-blood  males  are  constantly  used. 
By  using  grade  bulls,  there  is  also  a  constant  deteriora- 


^HEEDING-  DAIKY  STOCK.         '  37 

tion  of  blood,  but  not  as  rapid  as  when  scrub  bulls  are 
used.  The  only  safety  is  in  using  pure  blood  males. 
With  these  well  selected  and  all  other  conditions  main- 
tained, the  status  is  certain  to  be  preserved,  if  improve- 
ments, in  consequence  of  better  care  and  selection,  are 
not  secured. 

COUPLING. 

Proper  coupling,  or  rather  the  coupling  of  proper 
animals,  has  received  little  attention,  and  is  now  confined 
generally  if  not  exclusively  to  professional  breeders. 
But  it  is  a  subject  to  which  the  dairymen  ca-n  as  well  as 
not  pay  attention  with  good  results.  By  coupling  proper 
animals,  we  mean  having  regard  to  individual  points 
and  qualities,  never  coupling  those  having  the  same  de- 
fects, either  in  form  or  quality.  For,  instance,  to  illus- 
trate, a  cow  high  on  the  rump  may  be  safely  bred  to  a 
bull  low  on  the  rump,  or  vice  versa,  the  result,  in  all  pro- 
bability, being  an  offspring  with  a  level  rump.  This  is 
breeding  together  opposite  extremes,  depending  on  the 
one  to  correct  the  other.  But  it  we  breed  two  sloped 
rumps  together,  or  two  humped  rumps,  the  result  would 
be  to  exaggerate  and  intensify  or  strengthen  this  deform- 
ity in  the  offspring.  So  of  quality  or  disposition.  A 
nervous  cow  bred  to  a  nervous  or  irritable  bull,  would  be 
pretty  sure  to  drop  a  calf  that  would  be  more  nervous 
than  either  sire  or  dam.  But  if  one  of  the  parents  is  dull 
and  sluggish  and  the  other  irritable  and  sensitive,  the 
offspring  might  be  an  improvement  on  both.  Again,  a 
cow  lacking  in  the  quality  of  richness  of  milk,  though 
giving  a  large  flow,  should  not  be  coupled  with  a  bull 


HINTS  OX  DAIKYINO. 

descended  from  a  family  having  the  same  peculiarity  of 
large  flow  lacking  in  richness.  But  if  there  is  richness 
on  one  side  and  abundance  on  the  other,  the  coupling  of 
the  two  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  result  in  im- 
provement in  the  offspring,  which  might  inherit  both  the 
large  flow  and  the  rich  quality.  Bad  points  and  qualities 
are  inheiited  as  well  as  good  ones.  Hence,  the  constant 
aim  and  care  must  be  to  avoid  developing  what  is  objec- 
tionable as  well  as  to  develop  what  is  desired.  It  must 
be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  like  begets  like.  All 
the  trouble  attending  inbreeding,  crossing  or  grading 
comes  from  not  properly  regarding  this  fact.  Where 
inbreeding  is  followed,  the  only  disadvantage  arises  from 
the  fact  that  all  the  animals  are  likely  to  have  the  same 
defects  of  form,  quality  and  constitution.  But  where- 
these  are  all  right,  the  advantage  is  that  inbreeding  fixes 
the  features  and  qualities  and  secures  the  establishment 
of  them  in  a  type  or  breed.  But  crossing  or  grading 
animals  having  the  same  failing  will  prove  just  as  disas- 
trous as  would  inbreeding.  But  crossing  may  be  done  in 
a  way  to  develop  good  qualities,  and  these  may  afterward 
be  fixed  by  careful  selection  and  inbreeding  of  offspring. 
This  subject  of  breeding  is  one  of  great  importance, 
and  yet  little  understood.  Many  things  pertaining  to  it 
are  yet  to  be  settled,  though  great  progress  has  been 
made  during  the  last  few  years,  and  public  attention  is 
being  drawn  to  it  as  it  never  was  before.  It  will  be 
found  that  man  can  become  master  of  the  situation,  and 
may,  by  observing  certain  fundamental  conditions  and 
varying  only  the  details,  breed  domestic  animals  of 


BREEDING  DAIRY  STOCK.  J)!) 

almost  any  form,  disposition,  and   quality,  that   he   may 
desire. 

CAKE    AND    KKK1'. 

Better  care  and  keep,  however,  are  the  key  notes  to 
improvement.  Higher  conditions  and  better  surround- 
ings lead  to  improvements  which  may  be  developed  into 
fixed  traits  by  proper  selection  and  coupling,  provided 
the  improved  environment  is  maintained.  The  status  can 
be  maintained  only  by  maintaining  the  conditions.  This 
is  what  we  mean  by  care.  Under  this  head,  we  include 
all  that  pertains  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  animal. 
Judicious  care  is  of  prime  importance  not  only  inbreeding 
but  in  securing  the  best  results  in  dairy  products.  Proper 
food  and  drink  and  enough  of  it,  with  shelter,  kind  treat- 
ment, regularity  and  the  most  thorough  system,  must  be 
provided,  or  corresponding  failure,  for  any  and  all  abuse, 
neglect  or  mistake,  is  sure  to  follow. 


FEEDING-    STOCK. 


HE  question  of  feeding  stock  is  yearly  rising -into 
greater  prominence  and  importance.  Formerly,  il 
was  thought  that  anybody  wh.o  could  throw  out 
coarse  fodder  and  hay  to  cattle  knew  enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  about  feeding,  and  that  any  sort  of  a  shel- 
ter, or  no  shelter,  if  the  animal  survived,  was  sufficient- 
Better  ideas  are  beginning  to  prevail.  Few  men  now 
think  they  know  all  that  can  be  learned  about  feeding 
stock,  and  those  who  know  the  most  are  the  most  anxious 
to  learn.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  feeding  requires  a 
knowledge  of  physiology  and  biology,  with  the  chemical 
composition  and  nutritive  qualities  of  the  different  kinds 
of  food.  Added  to  this  must  be  the  practical  knowledge 
gained  by  observation  of  the  effects  of  the  different  foods 
on  different  ani mals  under  various  conditions.  And  when 
all  is  known  that  can  be,  there  will  still  be  room  left  for 
the  exercise  of  the  best  judgment  of  the  feeder  as  to  the 
conditions  and  requirements  of  the  animal  fed,  and  as  to 
the  quality  of  the  foods  available  and  the  quantity  and 
proportions  of  each. 

CARBONACEOUS  AND  NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 

It  is  pretty  well  known  what  the  constituents  of  the 
animal  organism  are,  and  what  elements  of  nutrition  are 


FEEDING    STOCK.  41 

required  in  the  food  for  the  sustenance  of  the  animal. 
Of  these  primal  elements — some  twelve  or  fifteen  in 
number — it  is  found  that,  practically,  when  foods  com- 
bined contain  two  of  them  in  proper  proportion,  the  iest 
are  generally  present  in  sufficient  quantity.  These  two 
are  CARBON  and  NITROGEN,  and  the  foods  containing  them 
in  relatively  large  proportion  are  respectively  called  <•<//•- 
botificcouK  and  nitrogenous.  All  foods  contain  these  ele- 
ments in  greater  or  less  proportion.  The  proper  propor- 
tion for  feeding  is  found  to  be  about  one  of  nitrogen  to 
fice  or  */>  of  carbon.  If  the  temperature  of  the  weather 
is  low,  the  proportion  of  carbon  may  be  raised  to  eight, 
and  even  ten,  where  little  exercise  is  had — as,  for  in- 
stance, milch  cows  standing  in  a  cold  stable.  But,  in  hot 
weather,  when  cows  are  giving  milk,  the  carbon  may  be 
reduced  to  four  and  even  three — that  is,  so  that  there 
shall  be  one  part  of  nitrogen  to  three  or  four  parts  of  car- 
bon. The  carbon  is  heat  and  fat  producing,  and  some 
class  it  as  motor  producing,  but  we  think  this  is  a  mis- 
take, save  so  far  as  heat  is  essential  to  motion.  We  think 
nitrogen  is  motor  producing  as  well  as  muscle  producing 
— or,  in  other  words,  that  the  element  which  produces  the 
organs  of  motion  also  fills  them  with  energy,  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  which  heat  is  essential.  We  cannot  have  mo- 
tion, or  even  life,  much  below  the  normal  temperature  of 
about  98  degrees  Fahrenheit.  At  all  events,  it  is  found 
necessary  to  feed  nitrogenous  food  to  all  animals  that  are 
working  hard,  to  supply  the  waste  of  muscle — and  we 
think  also  to  replace  the  expended  energy.  Dr.  J.  M51- 
ner  Fothergill,  in  his  work  on  the  "Maintenance  of 


42 

Health,"  published  by  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sous,  s:iys  :  "  The 
effect  of  the  nitrogen  upon  the  brain  is  to  c^nlrc  ucrcc 
force  fredy,  and  this  rules  and  regulates  the  actual  force 
which  takes  its  origin  in  the  respiratory  foods  consumed. 
These  respiratory  foods  furnish  the  force  itself,  but  the 
nitrogenized  foods  furnish  the  muni  festers  of  force1.'1  It 
appears  to  us  that  the  nerve  force,  which  he  says  is 
evolved,  is  all  there  is  of  it,  save  the  requisite  conditions 
afforded  by  heat.  Dr.  Hough  ton  says  :  kk  The  hunted  deer 
will  outrun  the  leopard  in  a  fair  open  chase,  because  the 
force  supplied  to  its  muscles  by  vegetable  food  is  capa- 
ble of  being  given  out  continuously  for  a  long  period  of 
time ;  but  in  a  sudden  rush  at  a  near  distance,  the  leopard 
will  infallibly  overtake  the  deer,  because  its  flesh  food 
stores  up  in  the  blood  a  reserve  of  force  capable  of  being- 
given  out  instantaneously  in  the  form  of  exceedingly 
swift  inuscualr  action."  Dr.  Fotbergill  goes  on  to  say: 
"  Nitrogen  is  the  essential  factor  in  all  explosive  com- 
pounds, from  gunpowder  to  nerve  force.  It  endows  the 
consumer  of  it  with  energy  and  enables  him  to  discharge 
his  force  quickly  and  rapidly."  Again,  he  says  of  the 
race-horse:  "His  food  affects  his  speed  and  endurance, 
and  without  his  nitrogenized  food  he  would  cut  a  poor 
figure  at  a  race,  because  without  it  he  could  not  discharge 
his  force  fast  enough." 

WHAT    IS   OAKBONV 

It  is  pure  in  the  diamond,  nearly  pure  in  coal,  and  is 
the  principal  constituent  of  all  woody  fiber — also  of  oils, 
fat,  starch,  sugar,  etc.  Nearly-all  the  visible  organic 


FKKDTNd    STOCK.  43 

world  is  composed  of  carbon.  It  appears  to  be  very 
plentiful,  but  of  our  atmosphere  it  composes  only  about 
Ibur-ten-thonsandth.s,  while  oxygen,  with  which  it  unites 
to  form  carbonic  acid  gas  for  vegetation  to  feed  on,  .com- 
poses one-fifth  and  nitrogen  four-fifths.  Really,  we  have 
link-  trouble  in  securing  carbonaceous  foods.  The  only 
difficulty  is  to  get  them  in  a  digestible  form.  Only  what 
is  soluble  can  be  digested  and  assimilated  by  the  animal 
organism.  Hence,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  get  food 
in  a  proper  condition  for  animal  nutrition. 

WHAT    IS   NITROGEN? 

It  is  almost  pure  in  the  albumens,  both  vegetable  and 
animal.  It  is  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  egg.  Hence, 
nitrogenous  foods  are  quite  commonly  called  albumin- 
oids. It  exists  abundantly  in  all  the  proteins— as  cheese 
or  caseine,  fibrin  or  lean  meat,  albumen,  etc.  Nitrogen, 
in  its  free  state,  appears  to  be  an  innocuous  gas,  diluting 
the  oxygen  and  preventing  it  from  rapidly  oxydizing  or 
burning  up  everything.  As  before  said,  it  constitutes 
four-fifths  of  our  atmosphere,  but  does  not  appear  to  be 
directly  appropriated  by  either  vegetables  or  nnimals. 
As  food  for  either,  it  must  be  in  combination  with  other 
elements — especially  carbon— and  yet  it  is  very  difficult 
to  make  it  unite  with  other  elements,  and  hard  to  main- 
tain the  union  when  it  is  once  formed.  Its  disposition  is 
to  break  these  unions  and  seek  an  idle  state  of  freedom. 
Hence  it  is  that,  when  held  in  durance,  its  constant  ten- 
dency to  free  itself  makes  it  the  motor  force  in  all  animal 
organisms,  and  the  terrible  energy  in  all  explosives.  It 


44 


HINTS    ()X    DAIRYING. 


is  secured  in  the  form  of  ammonia  in  rain,  by  a  process 
called  nitrification  it  unites  with  the  soil,  and  it  exists  in 
all  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  matter  in  a  form  suit- 
able for  plant  food.  Men  and  animals  get  it  by  eating 
vegetables  or  by  eating  one  another.  It  is  a  very  abun- 
dant and  important  element,  yet  very  difficult  to  obtain 
in  an  available  form  for  plant  and  animal  food.  Fortu- 
nately, but  comparatively  little  of  it  is  needed. 


RATION'S. 

By  referring  to  the  feed  tables  furnished  by  the  ana- 
lysts of  this  country  and  Europe,  the  farmer  can  learn 
the  constituents  of  foods.  Then,  knowing  the  ration  re- 
quired, he  can  take  different  foods  and  compound  in  the 
right  proportions  aimed  at  in  feeding,  whether  for  work, 
for  growth,  for  fat,  for  bare  maintenance,  or  for  milk. 
We  give  the  German  standards  for  feeding  animals: 


FEEDING    STOCK. 


SJ 


;2   oc' «  d  oc  00°  ooi» 


ddo 


o  w  e;  q  oq  oq  10 

OO  rH  n  >^  •*  •*  C<J 


oo  t-;  co  ••*  >Cj  q  t-;  ic 

^    d  rH  C**  <M  CO  C^°  Cl 


fi  x  a8 -H  •*•»•>  H 
I1III1I 

C  d  S  S  C  fl  « 

x  x  x  x  x  x  6 
CCOOOOQ 


eo  ic  oc  d  —' 


d  d  d  6  o 


-;  r-J  00  TH  W 

M  rj!  CO  C5  Oi 


WOOOO-* 

co  t-'  e-j  d  d 


l&ll 

o3 

s 

.52  co  ?c  c<)  oo  -+ 
^  M  <M  co  cc  !M 


40  HINTS    OX    DA  IKYING. 

SAMl'LK    KATiONS. 

Dr.  Wolf  gives  an  illustration  of  the  standard  lor  a 
milch  cow,  by  saying  (hat  '•}()  Ibs.  of  young  clover  hay 
will  keep  a  cow  in  good  milk;  and  that  this  contains  oi' 
dry  organic  substance,  23  Ibs.,  of  which  is  digestible1  al- 
buminoids 3.21,  carbohydrates  11. 28, .and  fat  0.(>3.  This 
is  .71  Ib.  albuminoids  more,  and  .22  11).  of  carbohydrates 
less,  with  .13  Ib.  of  fat  more,  than  the  standard.  Then  In- 
takes the  richest  and  best  meadow  hay,  of  which  30  Ibs. 
contains  of  organic  substance  23.2  Ibs.,  having  digestible 
—  albuminoids  2.49  Ibs.,  carbohydrates  12.75  Ibs.,  and  fat 
42  Ib.  This  is  almost  exactly  the  feeding  standard. 

As  will  have   been  seen  by  what   has   preceded,  the 
German  standard  ration  for  a  milch  cow  is  24  Ibs.  of  dry 
organic  substance,  containing  2.50  Ibs.  nitrogenous  food. 
and  12.90  Ibs.  of  carbonaceous  food.     To  secure  this,  Dr. 
Wolff  recommends  for  every  1,000  Ibs  of  live  weight : 
12  Ibs.  average  meadow  hay. 
6   "     oat  straw. 
20   "     mangolds. 
25   "     brewers'  grain. 
2  "     cotton  seed  cake. 

Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson's  ration  for  the  same  purpose  is: 
20  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 

5  "     iye  straw. 

6  "     malt  sprouts. 

2   "     cotton  seed  meal. 

The  following  milk  rations  are  recommended  by  Prof. 
E.  W.  Stewart : 


FEEDING   s 


No.  1. 

18  Ibs.  oat  straw. 
."'  '•  bean  straw, 
fi  "  cotton  seed  cake. 


2   >;    wheat  bran. 
5    "     linseed  meal. 

No.  :;. 

20  Ibs.  poor  hay. 
5    •'    corn  meal. 
5    "    cotton  seed  cake 


20  Ibs.  wheat  si  raw. 
5    "     wheat  bran, 

3  •'•   corn  meal. 

4  "    linseed  meal. 

No.  r,. 

20  Ibs.  fresh  marsh  hay. 
r>   ••    corn  meal. 
5  "    cotton  seed  meal. 

No.  ti. 

I0ft>s.good  mead'whay 
10   "    rye  straw. 
3    "    wheat  bran. 

5  "    linseed  meal. 


The  following  are  given  by  the  same  author  as  milk 
rations : 

No,  4. 
15  Ibs.  straw. 


10  Ibs.  clover  hay. 
10   "    straw. 

4    ••    linseed  oil  cake. 

4   *'    wheat  bran. 

2   "    cotton  seed  cake. 

4   "    corn  meal. 


18  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 
8   "wheat  bran. 
4  •'    cotton  seed  meal. 

4   "    corn  meal, 


.  meadow  hay. 
wheat  bran, 
linseed  meal, 
corn  meal. 


hay. 

cotton  seed  meal 

bran. 

corn  meal. 

malt  sprouts. 


No.  5. 

10  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 
10   "    oat  straw. 
2   "    linseed  meal. 

4  "    malt  sprouts. 

10   "    oat  &  corn  meal. 

No.  6. 
60  Ibs  corn  ensilage. 

5  "    hay. 

2    "    linseed  meal. 
4   "    bran. 


FATTENING   RATIONS. 

The  following  rations  are  recommended  by  Prof.  E. 
AV.  Stewart  for  fattening  cattle.  The  rations  are  for  1,000 
pounds  of  live  weight: 


48 


HINTS   ON    DAIRY IN(i. 


Nol. 

18lbs.wint'r  wh't  straw. 

40   "    corn  sugar  meal. 

4   "    cotton  seed  meal. 

No.  2. 

12  Ibs  oat  straw. 

10   "    wheat  bran. 

40   "    corn  sugar  meal. 

No.  3. 

12  Ibs.  clover  hay. 

6   "    oat  straw. 
40   "    corn  siigar  meal. 

2   "    linseed  meal. 


No.  4. 
15  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 

5  "    malt  sprouts. 
3   "    corn  meal. 

40    "    corn  sugar  meal. 

No.  5. 

20  Ibs.  best  clover  bay. 
50   "    corn  sugar  meal. 

No,  6. 

20 Ibs.  wheat  straw. 
8  "  timothy  hay. 

6  "    cotton  seed  cake 

NO.  7. 

20  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 
0  "  Indian  corn. 
6  "  linseed  cake. 


WORKING    RATIONS. 

The  following  are  rations  for  oxen  at  hard  work,  as 
given  by  Prof.  Stewart : 


No.  1. 

20  Ibs.  best  meadow  hay. 
10   "    corn  meal. 

No.  2. 

20  Ibs.  corn  fodder. 
5   "    clover  hay. 

2  "    wheat  bran. 

3  "    cotton  seedcake. 


No.  3. 
17  Ibs.  clover  hay. 

3  "    wheat  bran. 
10   "    corn  meal. 

No.  4. 

25  Ibs.  oat  straw. 
5   "    wheat  bran. 

4  "    linseed  cake. 


DIGESTIBILITY    OF    FOODS. 

The  following  table,  copied  from  Prof.  Stewart,  give 
the  digestibility  of  a  few  of  the  more  common  foods : 


Digestible 
In  loo  Ibs.    Digestible,    in  2.000  Ibs. 

CLOVER  HAY. 

Albuminoids 

..  15.3 
35.8) 
22.2  } 
3.2 

10.7 
37.5 
2.1 

214 

752 
42 

1008 

Carbo-hydrates  
Crude  fibre  
Fat  

FEEDING    STOCK 


4!) 


Digestible 
In  100  ll)s.    Digestible,    in  2,000  Ibs. 


AVERACfK  MEADOW  HAY. 

Albuminoids 9.7 

Carbo-hydrates 41.6  > 

Crude  fiber , 21. 9  y 

Fat 2.5 

CORN  FODDER. 

Albuminoids 4.4 

Car  bo  hyd  rates 37.9  » 

Crude  fiber 25.0  \ 

Fat 1.3 

OAT  STRAW. 

Albuminoids 4.0 

Carbo-hydrates 36.2  ( 

Crude  fibre 39.5  J 

Fat 2.0 

L1NSEKD   OIL  CAKE. 

Albuminoids 28.3 

Carbo-hydrates 32.3  ) 

Fibre..." 10.0  \ 

Fat 10.0 

WHEAT  1UIAN. 

Albuminoids .15.0 

Carbo-hydrates 52.2 ) 

Fibre...' 10. l  f 

Fat...  3.2 


CORN   MEAL. 

Albuminoids 

Carbo-hydrates 

Crude  fibre 

Fat  .. 


OATS. 

Albuminoid* 

Carbo-hydrates 

Crude  fibre 

Fat .  . 


.10.0 
.62.1  ; 
.  5.5 
.  6.5 


.12.0 
.55.01 
.  9.3  J 
,  6.5 


5.4 

41.0 

1.0 

3.2 

43.4 

1.0 

1.4 

40.1 

0.7 


12.9 
42.6 

2.6 


8.4 
60.6 

4.8 

9.0 
43.0 
4.7 


108 

820 

20 

948 

60 

868 

20 

"954 

28 
802 

14 
844 

475 
703 

180 

1358 


852 
52 

1156 


1212 

96 

147G 
180 

sao 

94 


1134 


50 


HINTS  ON  DATimNG. 


ELEMENTS    OF    FOOD. 

We  give  the  names  of  a  few  fo:)ds,  with  their  relative 
amount  of  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  elements: 

i;  sl|  I,-   l|: 

FOODS.  £  5    -?  i  ; 


jz; 

o 

« 

- 

C 

Meadow  hay,  medium 

to    8.0 

Potatoes 

o  io.fi 

Red  clover,  medium         1 

"     5.9 

Artichokes 

'     S.7 

Lucerne,  good 

"     2.8 

Ruttabagas 

'     8.3 

Swedish  clover  (alsike) 

"     4.9 

Sugar  beets 

'  17.0 

Orchard  grass,  in  blos'm 

"     6.5 

(  'arrots 

'     9.3 

White  clover,  medium 

"     5.0 

Turnips 

'      5.S 

Timothy 

"     8.1 

Whea.t,  grain 

'      5.S 

Blue  grass,  in  blossom 

"     7.5 

Rye.  grain 

'     7.0 

Red  to)> 

'      5.4 

Barlev.  sn'a.in 

•     7.9 

Foddei  rye 

1      7.2 

Oute,  grain 

Italian  rye  grass 

'      6.3 

Maize,  grain 

'     S.G 

Hungarian  grass 
Rich  pasture  grass 

•      7.1 

'      3.6 

Millet,  grain 
Peas,  grain 

'     5.4 
'     2.9 

Green  maize,  German 

'      8.9 

Buckwheat,  grain 

'     7.4 

Fodder  oats 

'      7.2 

Cotton  seed 

'     4.6 

Sorghum 

'      7.4 

Pumpkins 

'  18.4 

Pasture  clover,  young- 

'      2  5 

Coarse  wheat  bran 

'     5.6 

Rod  clover,  before  bl's'm 

'      3.8 

Wheat  middlings 

'     6.9 

Hed  clover,  in  blossom 

'      5.7 

Rye  bran 

'     5.3 

White  clover,  in  blossom 

'      4.2 

Barley  bran 

'     4.5 

Buckwheat,  in  blossom 

'      5.1 

Buckwheat  bran 

'     4.1 

Fodder  cabbage 

1      5.2 

Hempseed  cake 

'     1.5 

Ruttabaga  leaves 

"     3.9 

Sunflower 

'     1.3 

Fermented    hay,    from 

Corn  bran 

1  10.:; 

maize 

"  12.0 

Brewers'  grain 

'     3.0 

Fermented    hay,    from 

Malt  sprouts 

beet  leaves 

"     4.0 

\\  heat  meal 

'     5  7 

Fermented    hay,    from 

Rape  cake 

'     1.7 

red  clover 

"     iA 

Rape  nu  al,  extracted 

'     1.3 

Winter  wheat  straw 

Barlev,  middlings 

1     6.0 

Winter  rye  straw 

"  52.0 

Oat  bran 

'     9.7 

Winter  barley  straw 

"  40.5 

Linseed  cake 

'     2.0 

Oat  straw 

"  29.9 

Linseed  meal,  extract.-;! 

'     1.4 

Corn  stalks 

'  34.4 

Col'n-seed  meal,  decort. 

•    i.s 

Seed  clover 

'     7.4 

Cot'n-s'd  cake,undecort. 

1  .7 

Wheat  chaff 

•  24.1 

Cow's  milk 

'    4.4 

Rve  chaff 

'  32.6 

Buttermilk 

'     2.0 

Oat  chaff 

'  23.8 

Skimmed  milk 

'      1.9 

Bui-ley  chaff 

I    '  30.4 

Cream 

'  30.5 

FEEDING    STOCK.  51 

ENSILAGE. 

Major  Henry  E.  Alvord,  of  Houghton  Farm,  N.  Y., 
gives  the  following  as  tiie  range  and  average  of  analyses 
bv  a  large  number  of  eminent  scientists: 


Total  dry  matter  
Water  .'.  
Protein  
Fat,  
Nitrogen-free  extract, 
t'rudo  Ki.'er 

lian^e  in  100  Ibs. 

..    15.10  to  '25.90 
..  84,90  to  74.10 
.  .     ().!)()  to    1.90 
..    o.;;o  to   o.!);i 
.  .     7.00  to  13.40 
4  70  to    7  9!) 

Average, 
18.60 
81.40 
1.30 
0.60 
9.60 
5.90 

Ash  

..     0.90  to    1.40 

1.20 

REMARKS. 

It  is  safe  to  always  feed  cotton  seed  meal,  bran,  or  lin- 
seed cake  with  corn  fodder,  or  fodder  corn,  or  ensilage. 
And  it  will  always  be  found  to  work  well  if  corn  meal  is 
fed  with  clover  hay.  Corn  ensilage  with  clover  hay  will 
constitute  a  proper  feed.  To  avoid  waste,  and  secure  the 
best  results,  we  must  learn  to  balance  the  nitrogenous  and 
carbonaceous  foods.  Our  greatest  difficulty  in  feeding* 
as  in  manuring  the  soil,  is  to  secure  enough  of  the  nitro- 
genous elements.  These  are  what  we  have  mainly  to 
look  out  for,  the  carbonaceous  foods  usually  being  over 
abundant. 

Not  only  must  we  proportion  the  elements  of  food  pro- 
perly, but  we  must  prepare  the  food  so  that  it  will  be  in 
a  proper  condition.  It  may  contain  all  the  elements,  but 
in  consequence  of  being  in  a  bad  or  wrong  condition,  the 
animal  cannot  digest  it.  There  is  plenty  of  carbon  in 
coal,  but  who  would  expect  the  animal  stomach  to  digest 
it?  So  there  is  nitrogen  in  saltpeter  and  gun-cotton,  but 
they  are  not  in  a  suitable  condition  or  form  for  diges- 


HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

tion,  and  hence  have  no  food  value.  Most  raw  vegeta- 
bles are  indigestible  in  the  human  stomach,  but  cook 
them,  and  thus  put  them  in  a  proper  condition,  and  they 
become  nutritious  foods. 

There  are  few,  if  any,  perfect  foods.  Every  food  needs 
to  be  supplemented  with  something'  else.  Hence  it  is 
that  both  men  and  animals  want  variety.  Summer  pas- 
ture, composed  of  mixed  grasses,  makes  the  best  food  for 
all  kinds  of  stock.  Meadow  hay,  cot  at  the  right  time 
and  properly  cured — provided  there  is  a  mixture  of 
grasses—makes  a  proper  food  for  winter;  mat  even  this 
needs  to  be  accompanied  by  roots,  ensilage  or  something 
of  a  juicy  nature,  as  a  relish,  if  for  nothing  else,  and  as 
an  aid  to  digestion. 

In  a  state  of  nature,  roaming  free,  animals  select  and 
balance  their  rations  according  to  the  cravings  of  appe- 
tite. But  when  domesticated,  they  have  no  such  freedom 
of  choice,  except  perhaps  in  a  few  of  the  summer  months. 
In  winter,  they  must  take  what  is  given  to  them.  It  is 
our  duty,  therefore,  to  give  their  food  a  proper  balance 
of  elements  as  far  as  possible;  and  in  thus  conforming 
to  the  laws  of  nature,  we  shall  find  both  the  greatest 
economy  and  the  greatest  profit. 


MILK. 


T|T  is  a  comparatively  easy  operation  to  milk,  if  one 
/to  knows  how.  The  process  is  about  as  simple  as  that 
of  Columbus  in  making  an  egg  stand  on  end,  but  it  re- 
quires skill,  practice  and  a  muscular  hand  to  do  it  well. 
Grasping  the  teat  so  as  to  fill  it  with  milk,  and  then 
tighten  the  thumb  and  fore  finger  so  as  to  prevent  a  re- 
turn of  the  milk  to  the  udder  as  the  rest  of  the  fingers 
are  gently  but  firmly  closed,  so  as  to  give  a  downward 
pressure  and  expel  the  milk,  is  not  likely  to  be  done  by 
the  novice  the  first  time  trying.  But  ordinarily,  the 
performance  of  this  operation  is  soon  achieved  by  any 
one  who  wishes  to  learn,  though  it  is  declared  by  some 
that  they  "never  could  learn  to  milk."  Substitute 
"would''  for  "could,"  and  we  think  the  truth  is  more 
nearly  approximated.  Still  there  is  a  givat  difference  in 
milkers,  as  well  as  in  cows,  the  man  or  woman  with  a 
good  grip  in  the  hand  having  decidedly  the  advantage, 
both  as  regards  ease  and  expedition— and  it  is  quite  im- 
portant that  the  milk  should  all  be  quickly  and  continu- 
ously drawn  from  the  cow  after  the  milking  is  begun, 
;md  while  the  cow  is  in  the  mood  of  "  giving  down." 


T)4  HINTS   OX    DAIRYING. 

KEKP    QTIET. 

If  a  cow  is  suddenly  disturbed,  so  as  to  get  excited,  or 
gets  tired  and  out  of  patience,  the  flow  of  milk  may  be 
prematurely  stopped.  If  this  disturbance  is  continued 
from  time  to  time,  the  effect  will  be  to  permanently  les- 
sen the  flow,  or  "dry  up"  the  cow.  Any  tiling  that  irri- 
tates a  cow,  while  being  milked,  reduces  both  quality 
and  quantity.  Hence,  milking  should  be  clone  in  a  quiet 
and  orderly  manner.  Treat  the  cow  very  kindly  and 
gently,  so  as  to  gain  her  confidence,  and  be  as  careful  ns 
possible  not  to  hurt  her  teats  by  unnecessarily  tearing 
open  any  cracks  there  mmy  be,  or  pinching  any  warts, 
and  be  sure  to  not  dig  your  finger-nailr.  into  the  tents. 

REGULARITY. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  milk  cows  regularly  in  the  same 
order,  taking  the  same  one  first,  and  winding  up  with  the 
same  one  every  time.  Regularity  of  hour  in  commenc- 
ing the  milking  of  the  herd  is  an  advantange  in  securing 
the  best  results,  since  animals  as  well  as  men  are  greatly 
the  creatures  of  habit,  and  when  the  time  comes  around 
the  cow  will  desire  to  be  milked  and  all  the  functions  of 
her  system  will  concur  in  this  desire. 

KEEP   DOWN    THE    FOUL   ODORS. 

The  milking  should  be  done  in  a  sweet,  clean  place — 
either  a  stable  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  piaster  or 
other  deoclerizer  freely  used,  or  in  a  row  of  stanchions 
in  an  open  shed,  with  barely  a  roof  to  keep  off  storm  and 
sunshine,  and  no  filthy  deposits  allowed  to  accumulate 


HANDLING   MILM.  5o 

around,  it.  The  milk,  as  fast  as  drawn,  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  place  of  milking,  lest  it  absorb  odors 
from  the  droppings,  the  breath,  or  the  exhalations  from 
the  cow's  body — or  even  from  the  sweat  and  grime  of  the 
person  and  clothes  of  the  milker— for  milk  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  the.'-e  influences.  It  is  much  more  so  than  is 
popularly  supposed,  and  should  be  put  in  a  sweet  atmos- 
phere as  soon  as  possible  when  drawn.  Fine  fancy 
goods,  with  the  most  delicious  and  delicate  flavor,  cannot 
be  made  from  milk  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  a  foul  atmosphere. 

KEEP   OUT   THE   DIET. 

So,  also,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  out  all 
hairs,  dirt  and  filth  of  every  kind.  If  permitted  to  get 
into  the  milk,  filth  cannot  be  entirely  strained  out,  and 
hence  some  of  its  odors  and  flavors  wrill  linger  in  the 
fats  of  the  milk  and  appear  in  the  product  munufactured 
from  it.  The  indispensable  necessity  for  clean  utensils 
has  already  been  mentioned.  Filth  from  this  source  will 
not  only  affect  odor  and  flavor,  but  is  quite  likely  to  con- 
tain the  germs  of  ferment  which  will  multiply  in  the 
milk  and  product,  and  eauso  disastrous  results.  With  a 
clean  can,  clean  pails  and  clean  hands,  begin  the  task  of 
milking  by  brushing  off  all  loose  materials  from  the 
cow's  side  that  may  rattle  down  into  the  pail,  carefully 
brush  and  clean  the  udder  and  teats,  and  then  place  the 
pail  between  your  knees  in  a  way  to  prevent  the  cow 
putting  her  foot  into  it,  or  upsetting  it,  if  she  should 
move  about  nervously,  or  be  suddenly  startled — which 
should  not  be  permitted  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it. 


50  HINTS   ON    DAIRYING. 

LET    OUT    THE    COWS. 

As  fast  as  milked,  it  is  best  to  let  the  cows  go.  This 
gives  more  room,  reduces  the  generation  of  heat  in  the 
stable  or  milking  place,  and  lessens  the  amount  of  drop- 
pings and  consequent  bad  odors  rising  from  them. 
Those  left  will  soon  imclsrstair.l  this  and  iv>t  get  uneasy. 

A   LICK    OF    MEAL. 

If  the  cows  have  been  prepared  for  milking  by  giving 
them  a  lick  of  meal,  or  a  little  dry  hay,  when  they  come 
into  the  stable,  it  will  be  found  to  have  a  good  effect.  It 
will  also  cultivate  a  willingness  to  come  home  at  milk- 
ing time  and  take  their  respective  places  in  the  stanch- 
ions. It  pays  to  please  and  satisfy  a  cow.  She  will  de- 
posit her  appreciation  in  the  pail. 

CARE    OF    MILK. 

-  When  the  milking  is  over,  the  milk  should  be  taken 
as  directly  to  the  place  of  manufacture  as  possible.  If  it 
must  be  kept  over  night,  see  that  it  is  well  stirred  and 
properly  cooled  to  70  degrees  Fahrenheit,  before  leaving 
it.  Do  not  put  on  a  close  cover,  unless  the  milk  is  thor- 
oughly cooled.  It  is  far  better  to  deliver  it  directly  to 
the  cheese  or  butter  maker,  who  knows  how  to  care  for 
it,  and  has  facilities  for  doing  the  work — or,  at  least, 
ought  to  have.  Very  much  depends  on  having  the  milk 
delivered  in  good  condition.  If  it  is  not,  no  after  care 
and  skill  can  make  a  perfect  product  from  it.  True,  if 
all  right  when 'delivered,  it  may  be  afterward"  injured  or 
spoiled,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be.  It  is  therefore  the  duty 
of  the  patron  to  do  his  part  of  the  work  all  right;  then 


HANDLHIG    MILK.  ->  < 

lie  in. -iy  with  some  reason  blame  the  operator  if  the  result 
is  not  right.  But  luitter  and  cheese  makers  are  too 
often  expected  to  turn  out  first-class  products  from  sec- 
ond or  third  class  milk  —a  task  impossible  to  perform. 
With  good  milk  and  proper  facilities,  there  is  no  valid 
excuse  for  failure. 

The  first  object  is  the  production  of  good  milk.  This 
is  of  prime  importance.  Without  it,  the  after  product 
must  of  necessity  be  inferior.  The  next  object  is  to  pre- 
serve the  milk  in  its  best  condition,  all  through  the 
handling,  in  order  to  reach  the  best  results.  Milk  is 
often  spoiled  in  the  handling.  Hence  care  and  judgment 
must  be  exercised  to  maintain  the  proper  conditions  to 
the  end. 

COMPOSITION    OF    MILK. 

Few  understand  the  delicate  and  complex  nature  of 
milk.  It  is  a  compound  of  man}7  ingredients;  and  if  any 
one  of  these  is  disturbed,  it  affects  the  whole.  Their 
union  is  very  weak  and  unstable,  and  liable  to  be  broken 
by  many  influences.  To  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  com- 
position of  milk,  we  copy  the  following  diagram,  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  E.  Lewis  Sturtevant,  Director  of  the  New 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station: 


s-aaag^to  is 


H 

HIP 


[B 


E  i 
3'J 


llfj 


» 


HANDLING    MILK.  59 

Hero  are  between  twenty  and  thirty  different  constit- 
uents, in  various  proportions.  Their  combination  is 
effected  through  the  organism  of  the  cow,  the  ultimate 
work  beinir  performed  by  the  udder,  where  it  is  no  soon- 
er completed  than  reaction  begins  and  change  is  the 
result. 

DETKKIOKA'I TON    OF    MILK    IN    THE    UDDEll. 

The  longer  the  milk  remains  in  the  udder,  the  more  it 
is  impoverished  by  absorption  ot  some  of  its  ingredients. 
This  is  specially  true  of  the  tats,  which  are  taken  up  by 
the  absorbent  vessels  of  the  udder  and  carried  into  gen- 
eral circulation.  For  this  reason,  the  first  milk  drawn — 
which  is  the  first  secreted,  and  therefore  remains  in  the 
udder  the  longest  —is  the  poorest  milk  drawn,  and  that 
which  is  last  secreted  and  last  milked  (the  strippings)  is 
the  richest.  Hence,  the  longer  the  interval  between 
milkings,  the  poorer  the  milk  for  butter  making.  Three 
milkings  a  day  will  give  better  results  than  two. 

DO    FATS    EXPAND   BEFORE    CONG  EALING  V 

If  milk  is  to  be  set  for  cream,  the  sooner  it  is  put  to 
rest  and  the  less  heat  it  looses  before  setting,  the  better 
for  the  separation  of  the  cream.  If  cooled  down  much, 
the  cream  will  rise  more  slowly  and  separate  more  im- 
perfectly. In  cooling,  the  fluids  and  semi-fluids  condense 
faster  than  the  fats,  and  hence  become  relatively  heavier, 
and  settle  as  the  fat  globules  rise,  b}'  virtue  of  tiie  law  of 
gravitation.  The  theory  has  been  broached  by  Mr.  H.  B. 
Gurler,  of  DeKalb,  Illinois,  that  in  sudden  cooling,  the 
rluids  and  semi-fluids  are  not  only  condensed,  but  the  fats 


80  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING;. 

expanded,  thus  increasing  the  diliereme  in  specific1  gra- 
vity in  l;oth  directions.  In  this  way.  the  rapid  rising  of 
cream  iu  sudden  cooling  he  thinks  may  he  better  accoun- 
ted lor.  His  idea  is  based  on  the  fact  that  water,  just 
before  concealing1,  l.egins  to  expand  and  continues  to  ex- 
pand as  the  temperature  lowers.  Fats  consolidate  at  a 
much  higher  temperature  than  water,  and  he  thinks  the 
same  law  of  expansion  may  intervene  in  both  cases.  So 
far  as  we  are  aware,  it  is  not  known  whether  fats  do  act- 
ually expand  before  and  after  reaching  the  point  of  con- 
gelation or  not,  and  we  shall  feel  an  interest  in  having 
the  question  positively  settled  by  the  scientists.  If  it  is 
a  fact,  it  introduces  a  new  element  into  our  philosophy, 
and  will  help  in  the  solution  of  some  points  not  yet  satis 
factorily  determined. 

EFFECTS    OF    FALLING    TKMPKKATUKE. 

It  is  a  fact  that  cream  rises  best  in  a  falling  tempera- 
ture, very  slowly  in  a  stationary  one,  and  little  or  none 
in  a  rising  temperature.  Hence,  in  cold  weather,  when 
milk  cools  very  rapidly  after  being  drawn  from  the  cow. 
it  is  the  practice  of  many  good  dairymen  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  to  100  degrees  when  set.  In 
this  way,  they  get  a  quicker  and  more  complete  separa- 
tion of  the  cream  as  the  milk  cools  down. 

It  would  be  a  good  idea  to  have,  in  all  butter  factories. 
apparatus  for  setting  milk  so  constructed  that  tr,e  tem- 
perature of  the  mass  of  milk  can  be  gradually  and  even- 
ly raised  to  100  degrees,  or  even  slightly  above;  for  it  is 
difficult  to  deliver  warm  milk  in  a  good  conditi 


61 

pecially  in  liot  weather  \i'  \'  has  to  be  carried  an}-  con- 
siderable distance,  while  in  cold  weather,  it  is  sure  to 
get  considerably  reduced  in  temperature,  both  in  milking 
and  on  the  road  to  the  factory.  Hence,  it  seems  almost 
absolutely  essential,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  attained, 
to  have  some  means  of  properly  raising  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  at  the  factory. 


If  milk  is  to  be  sent  to  the  factory,  for  either  butter  or 
cheese  making,  where  the  distance  is  half  a  mile  or 
more,  it  should  be  aired  and  cooled — especially  if  it  is  to 
be  shut  up  iu  a  tight  can.  This  cooling  should  be  done 
as  speedily  as  possible  after  milking,  to  ayoid  taint  or 
souring.  If  the  milk  is  kept  over  night,  such  airing  and 
cooling  are  absolutely  indispensable.  The  mode  of  doing 
this  must  vary  with  conditions  and  circumstances;  but, 
whatever  method  may  be  adopted,  we  would  by  no  means 
recommend  putting  ice  directly  into  the  milk.  The  ef- 
fect cannot  lie  to  improve  flavor  or  keeping  quality. 

PROTECTION    FROM    TIIK    HOT    SIN. 

By  no  means  should  the  can  of  milk  be  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  a  hot  sun,  either  on  the  platform  waiting 
for  the  delivery  wagon,  or  on  the  wagon.  Give  it  shelter 
and  shade  of  some  kind,  in  both  cases.  If  a  woolen  blanket 
is  wet  in  cold  water  and  wrapped  around  the  r;.n,  the 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  blanket  will  keep  down  the 
temperature.  Everything  that  can  be  should  be  done  to 
preserve  milk  in  its  normal  condition. 


()'-3  HINTS    ON    DAIRYING. 

TREAT.MKNT    OK    NIGHT'S    AND    MORNING'S    MIJ.K. 

The  night's  milk  and  the  morning's  milk  should  never 
be  mixed  before  starting  for  the  factory,  but  kept  in  sep-i- 
rate  cans  and  s:>  delivered.  The  e,Te.;t  of  mixing  will  be 
seen  soon  enough  at  the  factory,  and  often  much  too  soon 
in  hot  weather.  If  the  mornings  milk  were  made  as 
cool  as  the  night's,  the  effect  of  mixing  would  not  he  so 
speedy  and  disastrous.  But  it  appeal's  to  be  an  immuta- 
ble law,  that  reducing  the  temperature  and  then  raising 
it  hastens  decomposition.  A  low  temperature  only  re- 
tards decomposition;  it  does  not  prevent  it,  unless  very 
low  and  it  is  continued.  As  soon  as  the  temperature  is 
raised,  decomposition  sets  in  with  accelerated  rapidity, 
as  if  to  make  up  for  lost  time.  Hence,  we  have  always 
looked  upon  low  temperatures  in  the  dairy  as  objection- 
able. As  low  as  (50  degrees  but  not  below  .">()  degrees  is 
the  limit  which  we  prefer.  We  think  this  range  more 
effective  for  long  keeping  than  a  lower  one.  Certainly, 
dairy  goods  made  and  kept  within  this  range  will  not  go 
to  decay  so  soon  as  in  a  higher  temperature. 

RECEIVING. 

In  receiving  either  milk  or  cream  from  the  patron,  it 
is  essential  not  only  that  justice  be  done  in  the  weight  or 
measure,  but  that  the  patron  should  be  satisfied  of  this 
fact.  The  agent  sent  out  to  gather  cream  should  be  an 
honest  man,  in  whom  the  patrons  as  well  as  the  employer 
have  confidence,  and  should  understand  his  business  and 
do  it  in  a  workman-like  manner,  so  as  to  inspire  confi- 
dence. He  should  also  be  versed  in  the  various  tricks 


that  may  be  resorted  to  by  patrons  to  deceive  and  cheat, 
and  be  on  his  guard,  quick  to  discern  any  suspicious  sur- 
roundings or  indications.  As  much  depends  on  his  judg- 
ment and  observation  as  on  his  honesty — especially  if 
any  of  the  patrons  are  disposed  to  be  dishonest,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case  where  it  would  generally  be  least 
suspected.  The  later  device  of  not  only  measuring  cream 
by  the  gauge,  but  of  testing  its  yield  of  butter  by  churn- 
ing a  sample,  is  not  only  a  guard,  to  considerable  extent, 
against  fraud,  but  more  closely  approximates  justice  by 
getting  at  the  actual  quality  of  the  cream,  on  which  de- 
pends its  value.  There  is  no  associated  s}'stem  yet 
devised — save  that  of  churning  every  patron's  cream  sep- 
arately and  weighing  the  product — that  secures  exact 
justice  to  all.  Nature  does  not  appear  to  have  furnished 
standards  of  commercial  measure  or  value  for  the  pur- 
pose of  indicating  mine  and  thine  in  mixed  transactions, 
or  in  speculative  exchange.  We  have  only  relative  and 
approximate  guides,  by  which  justice,  in  a  business 
sense,  is  by  no  means  secured. 

TESTING. 

Where  milk  is  delivered  at  the  factory,  w7e  have  as 
yet  no  standard  test  of  value.  All  the  receiver  can  do  is 
to  see  that  it  is  in  a  normal  condition — neither  sour  nor 
tainted,  nor  containing  bad  odors.  For  this  purpose,  the 
smell  must  mainly  be  relied  on.  Hence,  healthy  and 
keen  olfactories  are  a  gre^at  aid  here,  as  in  some  other 
cases.  If  one  catches  the  fumes  when  the  can  cover  is 
first  removed,  or  as  the  milk  runs  into  the  weighing  can, 
he  is  pretty  sure  to  detect  any  very  positive  bad  odor. 


(54  HINTS  OX  DAIKVINC. 

The  eye,  to  one  of  experience,  is  almost  certain  to  detect 
any  great  variation.  Even  slight  watering  is  seen  by 
some  from  the  peculiarity  of  the  reflection  of  light  from 
the  surface  especially  when  in  motion.  Much  water 
shows  from  the  "thin"  appearance  of  the  fluid.  Where 
the  smell  or  appearance  are  cause  for  suspicion,  or  there 
is  any  other  cause,  a  sample  may  he  saved  and  such  tests 
as  are  at  hand  may  be  applied.  The  so-called  lactometer 
will  show  whether  the  specific  gravity  is  below  or  above 
the  normal  standard.  The  cream  gauge  will  give  the 
percent,  of  cream  at  a  given  temperature.  If,  after- 
ward, a  sample  right  from  the  herd,  taken  so  as  to  know 
that  it  has  not  been  tampered  with,  shows  better  quality 
by  these  two  tests,  it  is  pretty  conclusive  evidence  that 
the  milk  from  which  the  factory  sample  was  taken  was 
not  in  a  normal  condition.  If  the  herd  has  been  subject 
to  no  change  of  feed  or  conditions  between  the  times  of 
taking  the  two  samples,  any  jury  would  be  safe  in  bring- 
ing in  a  verdict  against  the  defendant  for  watering,  skim- 
ming, or  otherwise  tampering  with  his  milk,  as  the  facts 
in  evidence  might  indicate. 

BAD    MILK. 

Sour  or  tainted  milk,  to  any  perceptible  degree,  ought 
not  to  be  received  at  the  factory.  One  such  mess  will 
injure,  if  it  does  not  spoil,  a  whole  batch.  The  sour  milk 
is  likely  to  lead  to  a  sour,  leaky  batch,  and  the  tainted 
milk  to  huffy  if  not  floating  curd,  and  porous,  quickly 
off-flavor  and  decaying  cheese.  We  have  little  patience 
with  those  who  deliver  such  milk,  and  none  with  those 
who  attempt  to  devise  means  to  work  it  into  palatable 


IIANDIJNM    MILK.  (55 

cheese  and  thus  to  get  it  into  the  unsuspecting  stomachs 
of  the  consumers.  It  is  too  much  like  making  omelets  of 
rotten  eggs.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  tainted  milk. 
The  first  stages  of  souring  are  not  so  objectionable,  so  far 
as  wholesomeness  is  concerned.  Sour  milk'  may  make 
good  pot-cheese  to  which  we  do  not  object,  but  it  will 
not  make  good  American  cheddar  cheese.  To  attempt 
to  work  it  into  this  is  the  worst  use  it  can  be  put  to. 

WEIGHING. 

All  possible  precautions  should  be  taken  to  avoid  mis- 
takes in  weighing  and  giving  credit.  A  hasty  compari- 
son of  each  mess  with  that  of  the  previous  one  delivered 
by  the  same  man  will  indicate  any  marked  departure 
from  weight  and  serve  as  a  check  against  error.  It  is 
well  to  always  announce  the  weight  to  the  patron,  who 
then  has  a  chance  for  comparison  with  his  average  or 
previous  messes.  He  will  be  pretty  likely  to  mention  any 
marked  variation,  especially  if  it  is  against  him.  Some 
patrons  like  to  have  a  pass-book,  in  which  the  weight  of 
each  mess  is  entered.  This  is  a  little  trouble  to  the  re- 
ceiver when  in  a  hurry,  but  it  is  a  complete  check 
against  errors  of  ontry  on  the  factory  book,  and  against 
the  forgetfulness  of  the  patron,  who  may  get  the  impres- 
sion that  he  has  delivered  more  milk  in  a  given  time 
than  he  has  been  credited  with.  Everything  that  guards 
against  error  or  misunderstanding  will  be  found  to  pay 
and  give  satisfaction  to  honest  men.  An  honest  factory- 
man  not  only  wants  to  be  right,  but  to  appear  right  and 
have  the  confidence  of  his  patrons.  A  dishonest  one  will 
want  to  appear  right,  and  it  is  well  to  take  such  precau- 

9 


(>()  HINTS    ON    DAIRYING. 

tions  as  will  make  him  what  he  appears.  See  that  the 
weighing  can  is  properly  balanced,  that  the  scales  are 
true,  and  that  the  weights  are  correct.  An  honest  man 
will  bear  watching,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
watch  a  rogue.  Where  the  milk  is  sold  to  tin1  factory, 
of  course  all  interest  in  the  matter  with  the  patron  ends 
when  he  gets  his  milk  correctly  weighed  and  his  money 
for  it.  Where  the  pro  rnt<i  system  is  carried  out,  this 
interest  extends  to  the  weighing  of  the  cheese,  its  mar- 
keting and  the  division  of  the  proceeds. 

KEEPING  MILK. 

When  the  milk  is  in  the  cheese  vat,  it  should  be 
stirred  and  aired  at  night  until  the  temperature  is  down 
to  70  degrees,  if  it  is  to  stand  quiet;  if  an  agitator  is 
used,  which  is  preferable,  no  further  attention  need  be 
paid  to  the  milk  but  to  see  that  the  supply  of  cold  water 
is  ample  and  continuous.  As  to  mixing  the  morning's 
with  the  night's  milk,  it  appears  to  be  preferable  to 
working  up  the  two  milk  ings  separately. 


MAJ&INGr. 


[HERE  really  are  but  four  systems  of  setting   milk 
for  cream,  notwithstanding   the   numerous   inven- 
tions and  devices.     These  are:  1.  Cooling  in  water; 
2.  cooling  in  air;  3.  shallow  setting;    4.  deep  setting. 

DEEP    SETTING   AND   WATER   COOLING. 

Deep  setting,  whether  in  pails  or  pans,  is  always  ac- 
companied with  water  and  the  use  of  ice.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  where  running  water  is  abundant,  ice 
is  dispensed  with,  and  the  pails  are  set  in  pools  or  tanks, 
while  the  pans  have  water  run  around  them,  if  not  under 
them.  Under-cooling,  however,  is  pretty  well  understood 
to  be  a  disadvantange,  unless  the  vessel  containing  the 
milk  is  submerged  in  water  or  nearly  so.  Ice  is  a  good 
deal  used,  and  the  milk  rapidly  run  down  in  tempera- 
ture. Some  think  this  is  the  better  as  well  as  the 
quicker  way,  if  not  the  only  way  to  get  all  the  cream. 
Our  only  objection  to  this  rapid  cooling  is  that  it  runs 
the  temperature  too  low,  and,  in  our  opinion,  injures  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  product. 

EFFECT  OF  TOO  LOW  COOLING. 

If  run  below  40  degrees,  or  the  point  where  water 
l.egins  to  expand,  all  cooHng  below  that  point  lessens 


(58  HINTS  ON   DAIRYING. 

the  difference  in  specific  gravity  between  the  water  and 
the  fat  globules,  and  operates  diametrically  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  what  is  desired.  The  aim  is  to  condense 
the  water,  which  is  a  good  conductor,  and  leave  the  fal 
globules,  which  are  poor  conductors,  unchanged  or  but 
slightly  contracted.  In  this  way,  the  heavier  fluid  settles 
and  drives  the  light,  particles  of  fat  upward  to  rest  on 
the  surface.  l>ut,  if  we  go  below  40  degrees,  we  produce 
the  directly  opposite  effect  and  retard  the  rising  of  the 
cream.  For  quality,  we  prefer  the  slower  cooling  in 
water,  and  think  the  longer  time  given  will  secure  all 
the  cream  available  and  in  a  purer  condition. 

BUTT  K  K  M I I/K     F I ,  A  VO  K . 

If  more  cream  or  butter  is  obtained  by  rapid  cooling, 
we  think  it  is  because  more  particles  of  caseine  are  en- 
tangled in  the  cream  and  remain  in  the  butter  when 
churned.  This  would  of  course  make  more  weight  for 
market,  but  of  inferior  quality  and  sooner  to  go  oil'  flavor. 
But  where  the  butter  is  consumed  fresh  from  the  churn, 
this  does  not  matter  so  much;  and  if  the  particles  of  ca- 
seine give  the  butter  a  slight  buttermilk  flavor,  it  pleases 
some  palates  that  have  been  educated  to  like  it.  We, 
however,  prefer  the  sweet,  delicate  flavor  of  cream  but- 
ter, free  from  caseine  or  lactic  acid.  But,  if  one  has  a 
special  line  of  customers,  he  must  please  them,  whatever 
the  demand  may  be.  If  the  butter  is  thrown  on  the  gen- 
eral market,  and  there  is  liable  to  be  delay  in  getting  it 
into  consumption,  it  cannot  be  made  too  pure,  nor  retain 
its  rosy  flavor  too  long. 


Bl'TTEll   MAKING.  6t) 

SETTING    ANT)    AIR    COOLING. 

Uenorally,  in  shallow  setting,  whether  in  large  or 
small  pans,  cooling  the  milk  in  air  is  depended  upon. 
Formerly,  an  underground  room,  or  one  in  a  shady  place, 
was  the  only  appliance  usually  resorted  to  for  cooling. 
'But,  of  late  years,  some  method  of  artificially  cooling  the 
air  by  the  use  of  ice  is  generally  adopted.  In  some  cases, 
the  milk  room  is  made  sm.ill,  with  low  ceiling  and  double 
walls,  so  that  a  cake  of  ice  near  the  ceiling  does  the  cool- 
ing. Usually,  however,  some  sort  of  refrigerator  con- 
struction is  resorted  to,  so  that  cool  air  from  the  ice- 
house, or  ice  placed  above  the  milk  room,  is  introduced 
to  regulate  the  temperature  and  keep  it  steady.  We  pre- 
fer cooling  in  air,  though  it  may  take  a  little  more  space 
and  time.  By  this  method,  extremely  rapid  cooling  and 
low  temperature  are  avoided,  and  no  violence  is  done  to 
the  milk  or  cream.  Deep  setting,  it  is  true,  exposes  less 
surface  to  the  air;  but  if  the  milk  is  not  submerged,  the 
surface  is  likely  to  be  cooler  than  the  air  above,  and 
to  condense  the  vapor  in  it,  which  falls  with  all  its  impu- 
rities on  the  surface  of  the  cream.  Any  foulness  or  bad 
odors  are  thus  absorbed  and  go  into  the  butter  product. 
While  submerging  obviates  this  objection  and  keeps  out 
all  impurities  from  the  air,  it  also  prevents  all  escape  of 
bad  odors  by  evaporation.  Whatever  that  is  objectiona- 
ble may  be  in  the  milk  is  retained  there.  By  setting  in 
open  air,  which  should  of  course  always  be  pure  and 
sweet,  the  air,  being  cooled  down  and  used  as  a  medium 
lor  cooling  the  milk,  takes  up  the  exhalations  of  moisture 
and  odor  from  the  milk,  and  thus  purifies  it.  The  colder 


70  HINTS   ON    DAIRYING. 

medium  is  always  the  condense]1  and  absorbent,  and  it  is 
only  when  the  milk  gets  colder  than  the  air  above  it  that 
it  condenses  the  moisture  in  the  air  and  absorbs  its  odor. 
This  will  never  occur  where  cold  air  is  the  cooling  me- 
dium. The  milk  theoretically  can  never  get  cooler  than 
the  air,  while  practically  it  remains  a  degree  or  two 
warmer  than  the  ail'. 

OXYDIZIN;;  CREAM. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  using  the  air  as  a  cool- 
ing medium.  In  shallow  setting,  more  surface,  is  ex- 
posed and  the  air,  coming  in  contact  with  the  surface, 
imparts  to  it  a  portion  of  its  oxygen,  which  mingles  with 
the  oils  and  develops  that  fine  butter  flavor  so  much  rel- 
ished by  most  and  which  is  a  peculiarity  of  fine  butter. 
Again,  slow  cooling  gives  more  time  for  this  oxydation 
to  go  on,  and  thus  "  ripen  "  the  cream  for  churning  with- 
out souring  it.  This  leaves  all  the  fine  flavor  in  it,  un- 
mixed with  flavors  resulting  from  acidification.  But, 
where  milk  is  set  deep  for  creaming— and  especially 
where  there  is  no  exposure  to  the  air,  as  is  the  case  in 
submerging  no  butter  flavor  is  developed,  and  the 
cream  has  to  be  kept  until  sour  before  it  is  properly 
oxydi/ed.  There  is  not  a  full  development  of  butter  fla- 
vor proper,  but  development  of  flavor  resulting  from  the 
mingling  ot  lactic  acid  with  the  oils.  But  without  this 
exposure  and  acidification,  the  butter  is  insipid  and  com- 
paratively flavorless.  Any  subsequent  exposure  to  the 
air  s:>on  throws  the  butter  oil"  flavor,  the  oxygen  min- 
gling with  the  fats  alone  while  the  cream  is-  rising  and 
still  s-.v-^f.  This  development  of  flavor  by  oxydation  i* 


BUTT  K II    MAKING.  71 

not  mere  theory;  it  has  b33ti  sruentiti^  illy  demonstrated 
at  Cornell  University,  New  York,  if  not  elsewhere,  and 
must  sooner  or  later  be  generally  accepted  and  butter 
m  tkiii'j:  proceed  on  a  more  rational  and  certain  basis. 
But  it  is  hard  work  to  get  people  out  of  old  ruts,  or  to 
oveivome  lixed  habits  and  prejudices.  Really  scientific 
butter  making,  in  whisii  every  step  will  be  thoroughly 
understood  and  deliberately  taken,  is  a  thing  of  the 
future.  It  will  come  in  time,  and  then  our  descendants 
will  wonder  why  we  were  so  stupid  and  slow  as  not  to 
see  and  adopt  the  simplest  principles  when  they  were 
thrust  into  our  very  faces.  But  mind  and  judgment  are 
matters  of  growth,  the  same  as  everything  else  in  this 
universe  of  being. 

SKIMMING    MILK. 

80  many  improvements  or  inventions  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  setting  of  milk  for  cream  that  the  term 
"  skimming  "  has  become  almost  a  misnomer.  In  both 
deep  and  shallow  setting,  arrangements  have  been  made 
in  several  of  the  patent  pans  and  cans  for  drawing  out 
the  milk  from  the  bottom  and  leaving  the  cream.  Glass 
gauges  are  set  in  the  vessels  so  that  the  exact  depth  of 
the  cream  can  be  seen,  and  the  milk  drawn  down 
close  to  the  cream  or  a  small  amount  of  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  milk  left  with  the  cream.  In  skimming  with 
a  skimmer  or  dipper,  many  aim  to  take  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  milk,  on  the  theory  that  the  separation  is  less 
perfect  toward  the  top  than  it  is  lower  down.  Especially 
may  this  be  done  where  a  dipper  or  skimmer  without 
holes  is  used.  It  is  claimed  by  some  careful  expermu'.nt- 


iz  HINTS    ON    DAIRYING. 

ers  and  close  observers  that  this  adds  to  the  quantity  of 
butter  yielded  without  deteriorating  the  quality. 

WHEN    TO    SKIM. 

Whether  skimming  off  the  cream  or  drawing  off  the 
milk  be  practiced,  the  question  arises  as  to  the  proper 
time  for  performing  the  operation.  The  more  general 
practice  is  to  "skim"  just  as  the  milk  gives  unmistaka- 
ble signs  of  acidity,  or  thickens  a  very  little  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan  or  can.  A  few  prefer  to  skim  the  cream 
sweet,  and  still  another  few  let  the  milk  lopper.  This 
wide  divergence  of  opinion  and. practice  shows  how  very 
imperfectly  is  the  real  philosophy  of  butter  making  un- 
derstood; but,  notwithstanding  this,  each  one  is  usually 
very  tenacious  in  his  belief  as  to  thf>  superiority  of  his 
own  practice.  A  few  fancy  butter  makers  say  that  the 
finest  butter  is  made  from  sweet  cream,  raised  in  cold  air 
by  shallow  setting.  It  is  insisted  by  them  that  airing 
and  oxydizing,  and  not  souring,  is  what  "  ripens"  cream 
and  fits  it  for  easy  churning,  while  this  airing  and  oxydi- 
zing  imparts  the  fine  aroma  so  much  desired  in  the  finest 
butter.  This  view  of  the  origin  or  development  of  flavor 
is  sustained  by  experiments  made  at  Cornell  University, 
at  the  suggestion  or  under  the  supervision  of  Prof.  L.  B. 
Arnold.  It  is  also  claimed  that  the  lack  of  flavor  and 
the  short-keeping  of  sweet-cream  butter  churned  from 
cream  raised  by  deep  setting  is  due  to  its  lack  of  oxygen, 
and  that  souring  the  cream  thus  raised,  before  churning, 
both  oxydizes  it  and  imparts  a  ranker  and  more  positive 
flavor  resulting  from  the  effects  of  the  lactic  acid.  We 
think  both  propositions  look  reasonable,  and  we  should 


BUTTER    MAKING.  73 

like  to  see  a  series  of  scientific  experiments  made  to  de- 
termine both  the  effects  of  oxygen  and  the  effects  of  lac- 
tic acid  on  the  butter  product  of  cream.  At  present, 
theory  and  practice  vary  so  widely  with  different  butter 
makers  who  turn  out  a  high-priced  butter  for  the  mar- 
ket, that  one  is  led  to  doubt  all  theories  and  query  whe- 
ther the  quality  of  butter  does  not  depend  on  something 
not  yet  known,  which  is  independent  of  all  current  theo- 
ries and  practices. 

CHURNING. 

And  as  to  the  proper  time  of  churning,  there  is  an 
equal  divergence  of  opinion  and  practice.  One  churns 
his  cream  sweet,  another  wants  it  slightly  changed,  a 
third  wants  positive  acidity  in  the  cream,  and  a  fourth 
loppers  the  cream,  while  a  fifth  lets  the  cream  stand 
even  twelve  hours  after  loppering — and  this  extremely 
sour  cream  butter  sells  for  the  very  highest  market 
price.  So  we  are  left  all  at  sea,  so  far  as  acidity  is  an 
element  in  butter  making.  Again,  to  further  illustrate 
these  extremes,  w^hile  a  gentleman  in  Vermont  is  setting 
his  neighbors  agog  by  raising  cream  in  a  vacuum,  a  Can- 
ada gentleman  is  experimenting  with  an  invention  to 
raise  cream  by  hydrostatic  pressure  and  get  the  fat  of  the 
milk  so  pure  as  to  dispense  with  churning.  We  hope 
both  will  succeed. 

TEMPERATURES. 

There  is  not  so  wide  a  difference  in  opinion  and  prac- 
tice as  regards  the  temperature  at  which  churning  should 

be  done  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results;    yet  there  is 
10 


74  IILNTS    ON    l)Af]!V[N(i. 

quite  a  wide  range — from  55  degrees  to  05  degiees — or 
10  degrees  Fahrenheit.  But  only  a  few  go  as  high  as  f>5 
degrees  or  as  low  as  55  degrees.  The  great  majority 
favor  60  degrees  to  03  degrees  as  the  proper  range  of 
temperature  for  different  seasons  and  conditions.  Some 
favor  58  degrees  to  60  degrees,  and  all  appear  satislied 
with  results.  It  is  not  improbable  that  different  degrees 
of  acidity  in  the  cream  require  different  degrees  of  tem- 
perature for  churning,  and  that  sweet  cream  requires 
still  another  variation  of  temperature.  So  the  breed, 
condition  of  the  cows,  kind  of  feed,  quality  of  feed,  char- 
acter of  the  water  drank,  length  of  time  the  cows  have 
been  in  milk,  and  other  considerations,  require  variations 
in  the  temperature.  Sure  we  are  that  the  difference  in 
conditions  and  surroundings  must  explain  some  of  the 
differences  of  opinions  and  practices  among  butte:1 
makers. 

WHAT   MAKES   THE    BUTTER   COME. 

It  is  not  known  whether  concussion  or  friction,  or 
both,  cause  the  separation  of  the  butter  from  the  butter- 
milk in  churning.  But  we  suspect  that  concussion  is  the 
real  agent  that  produces  the  separation,  as  we  have 
really  seen  no  churn  that  did  not  in  some  way  produce 
more  or  less  concussion.  All  the  churns  we  have  seen 
used  appeared  to  produce  good  results,  and  we  find  every 
dairyman  is  satisfied  with  the  work  of  the  churn  he 
uses,  whatever  the  kind,  style  or  patent.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  recommend  any  style  of  churn  as  superior  to 
another,  but  we  prefer  the  simple  and  less  expensive 


BTJTTEU    MAKING.  75 

forms,  as  not  only  costing  less  but  being   easier   to  keep 
clean. 

The  churning  should  be  steady  and  not  violent.  A.  too 
rapid  or  sudden  separation  of  the  butter  from  the  butter- 
milk is  not  desirable.  It  is  no  recommend  for  a  churn 
that  it  churns  quick.  Such  a  churn  is  apt  to  injure  the 
so-called  grain  of  the  butter  and  make  it  salvy  and 
greasy.  The  least  churning  that  will  separate  the  butter 
from  the  buttermilk  is  the  best. 

WHEN   TO    STOP   CHURNING. 

The  improved  modern  method,  now  in  practice  by 
the  best  butter  makers  generally,  is  to  stop  the  churn  as 
soon  as  the  butter  is  collected  in  particles  the  size  of 
wheat  kernels.  Just  before  this,  when  the  first  signs  of 
the  separation  of  the  butter  is  seen,  the  sides  of  the  churn 
are  washed  down  with  cold  water — usually  below  00 
degrees,  or  about  55  degrees— to  not  only  prevent  waste, 
but  to  harden  the  butter  and  make  it  easier  to  handle. 
When  the  granules  are  the  size  of  wheat  kernels,  the 
butter  is  drawn  off  or  the  butter  taken  out  of  the  butter- 
milk, as  the  case  may  be.  If  the  butter  is  left  in  the 
churn,  water  is  poured  in  to  float  the  butter,  which  is 
then  gently  agitated  a  moment  and  the  water  drawn  off. 
This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  water  runs  clear. 
Sometimes  one  of  the  washings  is  in  brine,  which  coagu- 
lates the  caseine  into  a  soluble  form  and  prepares  it  to 
be  washed  out  afterward.  In  this  way,  it  is  believed  that 
purer,  longer-keeping  butter  can  be  made.  In  some 
ca.x<>s.  however,  butter  makers  have  customers  who  want 


76  HINTS   ON    DAIRYING. 

a  buttermilk  flavor  in  their  butter.  They,  therefore,  do 
not  wash  the  butter,  or  wash  it  very  little.  Such  butter 
must  be  consumed  at  once,  as  it  will  not  keep. 

WORKING. 

By  this  method  of  retaining  the  butter  in  a  granulated 
form,  only  sufficient  working  is  required  to  evenly  work 
in  the  s-.ilt.  The  less  working  the  better. 

SALTING. 

The  salt,  after  the  butter  is  properly  drained,  can  be 
carefully  mixed  with  the  butter  by  stirring.  When  thor- 
oughly incorporated,  barely  pressing  the  butter  together 
into  a  solid  mass  is  all  that  is  needed.  If  one  does  not 
want  butter  very  salty  to  the  taste,  it  can  be  evenly  and 
nicely  salted  by  completely  wetting  it  with  saturated 
brine,  then  carefully  pressing  the  granulated  butter  to- 
gether and  leaving  in  it  as  much  of  the  strong  brine  as 
will  remain.  We  have  seen  butter  salted  in  this  way, 
and  it  was  very  evenly  and  completely  salted,  having  in 
it  no  undissolved  grains  of  salt,  but  it  was  not  as  salt  to 
the  taste  as  some  like. 

About  an  ounce  to  the  pound  is  good  salting;  but 
more  or  less  salt  must  be  used  to  suit  the  taste  of  custo- 
mers. None  but  retined  salt  should  be  put  into  butter. 
No  salt,  is  better  for  this  purpose  than  the  Onondaga  F. 
F.,  which  is  American,  and  the  cheapest  salt  fit  for  dairy 
use  that  can  be  obtained. 

The  principal  office  of  the  salt  in  butter  is  to  impart 
an  agreeable  flavor,  in  conjunction  with  the  natural 
aroma  of  fine  butter;  but  it  is  a  fact  that  too  much  salt 


BUTTER    MAKING.  77 

injures  i>ood  flavor,  and  it  may,  to  some  extent,  be  used 
to  cover  up  or  neutralize  bad  flavors.  We  do  not  recom- 
mend its  use  for  this  latter  purpose,  preferring  that  the 
natural  flavor  of  butter  from  pure  cream  should  be  pre- 
served. 

SALT    A8   A   PRESERVATIVE. 

Salt  does  very  little  to  preserve  butter.  It  retards  the 
decomposition  of  the  caseous  and  albuminous  materials 
left  in  it;  but  if  butter  is  properly  made  of  cream  not 
mixed  with  loppered  milk  and  is  completely  washed  with 
pure  water,  it  is  a  fair  question  if  butter  will  not  keep 
longer  without  salt  than  with  it.  There  are  instances  on 
record  where  butter  has  been  kept  sweet  without  salt  for 
a  long  time.  We  half  suspect  that,  though  salt  at  first 
retards  decomposition,  the  salt  itself,  in  time,  decompos- 
es and  becomes  sodium  and  chlorine  gas,  or  enters  into 
new  combinations  with  the  constituents  of  the  butter, 
and  thus  makes  new  compounds  that  do  not  in  the  least 
improve  the  flavor.  We  have  no  positive  evidence  of  this, 
but  have  had  this  suspicion  awakened  by  facts  related 
about  the  keeping  of  butter  and  by  a  process  of  general 
reasoning.  It  is  true  that  salt  is  one  of  the  most  stable 
compounds  known,  but  we  have  proof  that  it  can  be  re- 
solved into  its  original  elements,  when  stronger  affinities 
are  presented  lor  one  or  both  of  them  to  unite  with.  It 
would  not,  therefore,  be  strange  if  such  decomposition 
sometimes  follows  when  used  in  our  food  preparations. 

TACKING    BUTTER. 

It  is  quite  a  knack  to  properly  pack  butter  in  large 
packages,  and  the  work  needs  to  be  carefully  done.  Some 


78  HINTS   ON    DAIRYING. 

use  it  too  violently,  by  pounding  it  down,  and  thus  ma- 
king the  butter  greasy  or  oily.  It  should  be  gently 
pressed  together  in  the  package  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
no  spaces  rilled  with  air,  for  the  air  will  surely  mingle 
with  the  surrounding  butter  and  injure  its  flavor.  A 
good  way  is  to  begin  the  pressure  at  the  center  and  work 
carefully  toward  the  circumference,  so  that  all  air  may 
escape  at  the  sides.  In  this  way,  perfect  solidity  of  the 
mass  is  secured,  and  it  is  left  in  the  best  condition  for 
keeping,  so  far  as  the  packing  is  concerned. 

PREPARING    THE   PACKAGE. 

Before  putting  the  butter  in  the  package,  the  package 
should  be  soaked  in  water,  so  as  to  remove  the  taste  of 
the  wood,  and  then  thoroughly  soaked  in  saturated  brine, 
so  that  the  wood  will  not  draw  the  salt  from  the  butter 
which  comes  in  contact  with  it.  If  it  does,  the  butter 
thus  deprived  of  salt  will  turn  white,  have  a  sickish  fla- 
vor, and  soon  turn  rancid.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  not  only 
sprinkle  a  thin  layer  of  salt  over  the  bottom  of  the  pack- 
age, but  to  rub  the  moist  inner  sides  with  dairy  salt,  and 
thus  make  sure  that  there  is  salt  enough  in  contact  with 
the  wood  to  prevent  its  absorbing  the  salt  from  the  butter. 

CLOSING    THE   PACKAGE. 

When  a  package  is  filled,  a  piece  of  thin  muslin,  cui 
so  as  to  just  fit  into  the  top  of  the  package  and  complete- 
ly cover  the  butter,  should  be  wet  in  cold  water  and 
carefully  placed  over  the  top,  having  the  edges  pressed 
down  close  to  the  sides  of  the  tub.  Then  the  cloth 
should  be  completely  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  salt : 


BUTTER    MAKING.  <9 

and  if  the  salt  is  moistened,  so  as  to  form  of  it  a  thick 
paste  that  will  become  air-tight  when  it  dries,  it  will  do 
much  to  keep  the  top  of  the  butter  clean  and  sweet — for 
the  more  nearly  airtight  the  package  is  when  completed 
the  better  it  is  for  the  preservation  of  the  butter.  Then 
put  on  the  cover,  and  seal  the  whole  as  tightly  as  possible. 

STORING. 

Remove  the  package  to  a  cool,  sweet  place,  not  above 
the  temperature  of  GO  degrees,  and  set  it  so  that  it  will 
absorb  no  moisture  or  odors  from  the  ground.  Much 
butter  is  spoiled  by  keeping,  because  of  neglecting  the 
temperature,  and  setting  the  bottom  of  the  package  di- 
rectly on  the  cellar  bottom.  If  kept  at  a  temperature 
above  60  degrees,  butter  wall  surely  go  off  flavor,  and 
wood  will  as  surely  draw  moisture  from  the  ground,  if  in 
contact  with  it,  and  become  sour  and  musty,  sooner  or 
later  affecting  the  flavor  of  the  butter  within  the  package. 
Nothing  is  to  be  lost,  but  all  to  be  gained,  by  paying  at- 
tention to  these  little  things. 

STYLE   OF   PACKAGE. 

Of  course,  where  a  maker  has  a  special  market  for 
his  butter,  he  will  put  it  up  in  such  style  and  form  of 
package  as  suits  his  customers.  He  needs  no  other 
guide  and  would  injure  his  business  if  he  followed  one. 
But,  for  general  market  purposes,  the  50  Ib.  tub  is  the 
best  form.  The  New  York  and  Boston  dealers  like  this 
because  it  is  convenient  for  the  retailer,  who  can  read- 
ily slip  the  tub  off  from  the  butter  for  either  weighing  or 
cutting  up  for  his  customers.  But  aside  from  these  con- 


80  HINTS  ON 

siderations,  the  Welsh  tub  is  a  very  bad  form  of  package 
for  keeping  butter,  as  it  is  by  no  means  air-tight  nor 
anything  approaching  it.  Hence,  butter  sent  to  market 
in  these  tubs  must  soon  be  sold  and  go  into  consumption, 
or  there  is  material  depreciation  in  quality  and  a  corres- 
ponding loss  in  price.  The  old-fashioned  firkin,  which 
could  be  headed  up  and  the  butter  covered  with  brine, 
is  a  much  better  package  for  keeping  butter.  But, 
where  butter  is  consumed  as  fast  as  it  is  made,  and  fresh 
winter  made  butter  supplies  the  demand  through  the 
cold  season,  the  keeping  of  butter  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time  is  not  of  so  much  consideration.  We 
think  it  fortunate  that  this  is  so. 


§()  much  li.'.s  been  written  and  said,  and  so  little  un- 
derstood, about  cheese  making,  that  it  seems  almost 
a  hopeless  task,  as  \vell  as  a  thankless  one,  to  at- 
tempt to  say  anything  more  on  tlie  subject.  Sour  igno- 
ramuses and  floating  charlatans  have  spoiled  more  curds 
than  have  been  spoiled  by  any  detect  in  the  milk.  Sour, 
\vh<>y-so iked  cheese  has  been  ths  r-ige,  and  it  is  generally 
supposed  that  acid  alone  makes  a  firm  cheese,  when  the 
experience  of  every  cheese  maker  is  that  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult, by  the  ordinary  processes,  to  make  a  firm  curd  out 
of  sour  milk — which,  of  course,  no  one  ought  to  be  asked 
to  make  into  cheese— unless  it  be  pot-cheese.  Acid  may 
mako  a  curd  solid,  but  not  until  it  has  cut  out  a  large 
share  of  the  goodness  of  the  curd,  and  the  cheese  result- 
ing will  be  about  as  digestible  as  so  much  putty. 

DUTY  OP   PATRONS. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  patron  of  a  cheese  factory  to 
send  good  milk  to  it,  and  to  send  the  milk  in  good  condi- 
tion. It  is  not  only  his  duty,  but  his  interest  to  do  this. 
A  bad  mess  of  milk  may  spoil  a  whole  vat-full.  This  not 
only  entails  loss  on  his  neighbor,  where  the  factory  is 
run  on  the  i>r.>  r.itu  plan,  but  the  patron  must  stand  his 


HINTS  ON  I>Ali;y[.\<;. 

share  of  the  loss.  Aside  from  the  loss  entailed  on  others 
and  himself,  lie  ought  to  he  ashamed  to  deliver  milk  in 
a  bad  condition.  There  is  no  valid  excuse  for  it.  Il 
ought  to  be  his  pride  to  deliver  milk  in  as  good  condition 
as  anybody  does.  If  he  cannot,  he  should  leave  the  bus. 
iness,  and  go  into  something  in  which  he  has  the  ability 
to  excel.  Care  and  cleanliness,  if  the  cows  are  ha  ilt'.iy 
and  have  proper  food,  will  insure  good  milk  always. 

rNP.EASONAI'.LK    KXTl-XTATION. 

It  is  unreasonable  to  expect  a  cheese  maker  to  turn  a 
prime  article  of  cheese  out  of  poor  milk.  If  one  carries 
shoddy  cloth  to  the  tailor,  he  expects  a  shoddy  suit  in 
return,  not  a  broadcloth  one.  So,  if  he  carries  bad  milk 
to  the  factory,  he  must  expect  bad  cheese.  If  he  takes 
sour  apples  to  the  cider  mill,  he  does  not  expect  sweet- 
flavored  cider,  but  sour.  So,  if  he  carries  sour  milk  to 
the  cheese  factory,  he  must  expect  sour  cheese.  These 
defects,  when  they  exis1;  in  a  small  degree,  may  be  over- 
come, or  nearly  so,  an  1  a  pi-^i^le  cheese  mule.  But,  is 
the  cheese  made  from  imperfect  milk  really  a  fit  article 
of  food?  Who  would  work  rotten  egus  into  custard,  or 
sour  meal  into  bread?  Yet  this  is  just  as  consistent  as 
working  sour  or  tainted  milk  into  cheese,  and  the  pro- 
duct is  just  as  wholesome.  That  which  makes  stinking 
eggs  makes  stinking  milk — decayed  albumen— which  is 
just  as  wdiolesome  in  the  one  as  in  the  other. 

GUARANTEES. 

The  cheese  maker  who  guarantees  his  cheese  is  very 
foolish  if  he  does  not  insist  on  a  guarantee  of  good  milk, 


nor  should  lie  be  compelled  to  rely  on  his  judgment 
formed  in  the  haste  of  receiving  the  milk.  A  tricky  man 
may  juggle  a  bad  mess  of  milk  on  to  the  best  expert. 
How  can  the  cheese  maker  tell  whether  the  milk  is  from 
a  garget ty  udder,  or  the  first  milk  after  calving— both  of 
which  may  develop  in  a  very  offensive  way  when  the 
milk  is  heated  up?  So  the  milk  may  be  so  nearly  tainted 
or  so  nearly  sour  that  it  will  not  stand  the  process  of 
heating  up  and  cooking.  The  law  ought  to  be  very  se- 
vere on  the  man  who  delivers  bad  milk  at  a  factory,  or 
sell-  it  to  anyone.  -  The  factory  in  an  who  pays  the  price 
of  good  milk  for  sour  or  tainted  milk  is  certainly  very 
short-sighted,  and  cannot  long  maintain  the  respect  of 
the  man  who  sells  it  to  him,  nor  sustain  himself  pecuni- 
arily. The  man  who  pays  cash  for  milk  has  the  right, 
above  all  others,  to  demand  that  the  milk  shall  be  sweet 
and  wholesome.  This  is  one  point  that  should  be  insist- 
ed upon— the  delivery  of  good  milk  in  good  condition. 

HEATING. 

After  the  milk  is  all  in,  or  the  requisite  amount  is  in 
the  vat,  the  heat  may  at  once  be  started  and  raised  to 
some  point  between  80  and  80  degrees.  If  we  set  below 
this,  the  rennet  works  too  slow;  if  we  set  above,  it  is 
thought  to  work  too  fast— so  custom  has  fixed  upon  this 
range  of  temperature  for  setting,  and  there  appears  to  be 
no  valid  objection  to  it.  But  while  the  temperature  of 
the  milk  is  being  raised,  and  before,  it  should  receive 
frequent  stirrings  to  keep  the  cream  from  rising,  and 
thus  becoming  partially  or  wholly  wasted.  The  rennet 


84  HINTS   ON    DAIRYING. 

should  by  no  means  Le  added  until  the  temperature  stops 
rising — or  so  nearly  so  that  by  the  time  the  rennet  is 
stirred  in  and  the  stirring  stopped,  because  the  milk  be- 
gins to  coagulate,  a  stationary  temperature  will  have 
been  reached. 

COLORING. 

The  coloring  fluid  should  be  added  just  before  the 
rennet  is — unless  white  cheese  is  made.  There  is  a  lim- 
ited demand  for  white  cheese  for  the  London  market. 
But  do  not  make  the  color  too  high — as  there  is  a  limited 
demand  for  high-colored  goods,  and  this  mainly  from  the 
South,  in  spring  and  fall.  Nor  should  the  color  be  too 
pale,  as  there  is  really  no  demand  for  pale  cheese.  It 
should  be  either  white  or  of  a  medium  hue — a  bright, 
golden  yellow.  There  is  a  demand  for  uniformity  of 
color,  as  buyers  often  want  large  lots,  all  of  the  same  hue 
or  shade.  In  selecting  such  a  lot,  they  may  rule  out 
first-class  cheese  that  is  to  pale  or  too  high-colored.  The 
universal  use  of  the  same  manufacture  of  coloring  extract 
guaranteed  of  uniform  strength,  might  secure  uniformity 
in  coloring.  But  this  is  doubtful  and  difficult.  A  better, 
and  we  think,  a  feasible  way,  would  be  to  have  a  standard 
color — like  those  accompanying  paints — furnished  to 
every  cheese  maker  a*  a  guide,  and  let  him  color  to  it 
as  nearly  as  possible.  In  this  way,  a  close  approximate 
to  uniformity  of  color  might  be  secured.  He  could  then 
use  whatever  coloring  fluid  he  chose,  and  his  eye  would 
be  his  guide.  Coloring  does  not  improve  the  product. 
If  it  does  no  harm,  it  does  no  good  beyond  gratifying  the 


CIIEEJTE   MAKING.  CO 

eye  and  deceiving  the  palate  through  the  common  notion 
that  high  color  and  high  flavor  go  together. 

SETTING. 

Theoretically,  98  degrees  or  blood  heat  would  seem  to 
be  the  temperature  for  setting,  as  rennet  is  the  most  ac- 
tive at  this  point.  Usually,  82  degrees  in  warm  weather, 
and  80  degrees  in  cool  weather,  are  the  points  at  which 
the  rennet  is  added  in  setting.  But  there  is  no  reason 
for  a  different  temperature  at  different  seasons,  except 
that  in  cool  weather  the  temperature  is  liable  to  run 
down  a  little — which  should  not  and  would  not  be  the 
case,  if  the  make  room  were  so  constructed  that  the  tem- 
perature could  be  controled  and  kept  at  summer  heat. 

OTHER    DETAILS. 

Enough  rennet  should  be  added,  as  a  rule,  to  cause 
thickening  of  the  milk  to  begin  in  20  minutes,  at  82  de- 
grees. More  or  less  rennet  may  be  used,  as  it  is  designed 
to  have  cheese  cure  more  or  less  rapidly.  As  a  rule,  the 
more  rennet  is  used,  the  lower  should  be  the  temperature 
at  which  the  milk  is  set  and  the  curd  worked.  Agitation 
of  the  milk  should  be  kept  up  for  at  least  15  minutes, 
where  coagulation  begins  in  20  minutes,  or  as  long  as  it 
can  be  and  not  prevent  a  solid  coagulation.  The  stirring 
after  the  rennet  is  incorporated  is  merely  to  keep  the 
cream  from  rising.  The  less  cream  gets  to  the  surface, 
the  less  waste  there  wall  be.  In  a  cool  room,  where  the 
surface  cools  quickly  and  there  is  a  falling  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  milk,  there  will  be  a  thin  cream  on  the 
surface.  This  will  form  a  soft  cream  curd,  which  will 


86 

adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  vat,  to  the  rake,  and  to  the 
hands,  and  be  quite  annoying-.  The  amount  is  trifling, 
but  the  annoyance  of  the  thing  is  enough  of  itself  to 
make  it  desirable  to  keep  the  cream  down;  and  a  sum- 
mer temperature  of  the  room  is  useful  for  this  purpose, 
aside  from  the  comfort  and  the  better  handling  of  the 
curd,  from  first  to  last. 

KEEP'  THE  TEMPERATURE  EVEN. 

After  the  milk  begins  to  thicken,  a  cloth  should  be 
thrown  over  the  vat  to  keep  the  surface  warm.  A  con- 
venient way  is  to  tack  a  cloth  to  slats  a  little  longer  than 
the  vat  is  wide,  putting  the  slats  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches 
apart.  This  is  easily  rolled  up  and  set  aide,  when  not 
wanted,  and  is  easily  unrolled  over  the  vat  when  needed. 
There  should  be  no  raising  of  the  temperature  after 
the  rennet  is  added  and  the  mass  comes  to  a  standstill.  If 
there  is,  the  portion  next  to  the  sides  and  in  the  bottom 
of  the  Vat  will  get  the  most  heat,  and  there  the  rennet 
will  work  the  fastest  and  the  curd  will  become  tough  be 
fore  it  is  firm  enough  on  the  surface.  Therefore,  let  the 
heat  be  stationary  after  the  rennet  is  added  and  until  the 
curd  is  cut  fine,  and  keep  the  heat  as  even  as  possible  all 
this  time. 

CUTTING. 

The  coagulum  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  will  break 
clean  across  the  finger  when  placed  in  it  and  lifted  gent- 
ly upward.  This  early  cutting  is  essential.  There  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  any  waste  from  cuUing  a  curd  too  sonn. 
The  clearest  whey  will  always  be  obtained  by  cutting- 


CHEESE    MAKING.  87 

oarlv.  Tin-  whey  exudes  from  the  curd  much  more 
freely  when  it  is  yet  young  and  tender — and  the  only  ob- 
ject  in  cutting  the  curd  at  all  is  to  get  out  the  whey. 
When  cutting  is  begun,  let  it  be  continued  as  expeditious- 
ly  as  possible  until  it  is  finished.  Do  not  stop  and  let 
the  curd  stand  and  toughen.  It  cuts  more  easily,  with 
less  friction  and  less  waste  by  loosening  line  particles  of 
curd,  when  it  is  tender  and  parts  easily  before  the  knife. 
The  more  it  toughens,- the  harder  it  cuts,  the  more  fric- 
tion there  is,  the  more  the  curd  is  torn  and  bruised,  and 
the  more  the  waste.  If  we  could  cut  early  and  cut  in- 
stantaneously, it  would  be  all  the  better. 

CUT    FINE. 

Cut  the  curd  very  fine.  Seldom,  if  ever,  is  a  curd  cut 
too  fine..  As  the  object  is  to  get  rid  of  the  whe}^,  the 
finer  it  is  cut,  the  more  easily  we  achieve  our  object.  It 
is  not  as  far  from  the  center  of  a  small  piece  of  curd  for 
the  whey  to  run  out  as  it  is  from  the  center  of  a  large 
piece.  By  cutting  fine,  we  expose  more  surface  for  the 
whey  to  run  out  of,  and  we  have  smaller  pieces  to  heat 
up.  Curd  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat.  If  the  pieces  are 
large,  it  takes  a  long  time  for  the  heat  to  slowly  pene- 
trate them  when  wre  want  to  increase  it.  The  small 
pieces,  therefore,  absorb  the  heat  more  evenly,  and  this 
gives  an  evener  action  of  the  rennet. 

"COOKING." 

After  the  cutting  is  done,  if  the  whey  is  separating 
rapidly,  the  heat  may  be  started  at  once.  If  the  action 


88  HINTS    ON    DAIRYING. 

of  the  rennet  is  rather  slow,  it  is  better  to  wait  a  tew 
minutes  for  the  curd  to  harden  a  little,  while  with 
your  hand  you  carefully  rub  down  the  side  of  the  vat, 
thus  removing  all  the  curd  that  may  be  adhering  to  it. 
Not  over  five  minutes  waiting,  as  a  usual  thing,  is  neces- 
sary, and  generally  there  need  be  no  waiting.  But  as 
soon  as  the  heat  is  started,  begin  to  gently  stir  the  curd 
with  a  rake,  by  passing  it  down  into  the  middle  of  the 
vat  and  gently  raising  the  curd  on  each  side.  If  uncut 
pieces  appear,  carefully  separate  thorn  with  the  teeth 
of  the  rake.  Keep  up  this  stirring,  which  may  be  more 
violent  after  the  curd  hardens,  until  the  whole  is  heated 
up  to  98  or  100  degrees — or  to  blood  heat.  The  reason 
for  constant  agitation  is  to  keep  an  even  temperature 
throughout  the  mass  and  prevent  the  curd  from  packing. 
This  secures  even  action  of  the  rennet.  The  reason  for 
going  to  blood  heat  is  because  rennet  is  most  active  at 
this  point.  It  is  the  temperature  indicated  by  Xature. 
It  is  the  one  at  which  we  digest  our  food,  and  the  one  at 
which  the  calf's  stomach  forms  curd  and  afterwards  di- 
gests it.  The  pepsin  or  gastric  juice  is  more  potent  at 
blood  heat,  and  this  pepsin  or  rennet  is  what  does  the 
work.  The  heat  does  not  cook  the  curd  in  the  vat  any 
more  than  it  cooks  the  milk  in  the  cow's  udder.  We 
choose  98  degrees  as  the  proper  temperature  because  the 
digestive  or  cheesing  process  of  the  rennet  goes  on  faster 
at  this  point.  To  go  above  or  below  it  is  to  lose  instead 
of  gain.  This  temperature  sluuld  therefore  be  main- 
t'linecl  until  the  curd  is  ''coikeJ" — that  is,  until  the  ac- 
tion of  the  rennet  has  expelled  the  proper  amount  of 


CHEESE    MAKI^ZZ-^         89 


whey  and  the  curd  is  as  firm  as  we  want  it.  Anent  the 
stirring  of  curds,  use  the  hands  as  little  as  possible. 
There  is  nothing  better  for  this  purpose  than  the  com- 
mon hay  rake  with  the  handle  shortened  and  one  tooth 
cut  off  from  each  end  by  severing  the  rake-head  within 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  of  the  next  tooth* 

DllAWING    THE    WHEY. 

We  next  draw  the  whey  down  to  the  curd  —  leaving 
enough  to  stir  it  in  easily,  and  cool  the  whole  mass  down 
to  90  degrees,  to  avoid  too  much  packing,  and  draw  off 
the  balance  of  the  whey.  The  whey  should  be  run  off 
before  the  acid  develops,  because  acid,  formed  from  the 
milk  in  the  sugar,  dissolves  the  minerals  and  cuts  some 
of  the  oils  in  the  curd,  and  these  run  off  in  the  whey. 
Many  curds,  by  remaining  in  the  whey  too  long,  become 
whey-soaked,  and  make  cheese  that  is  soggy  and  hard, 
with  a  sour  flavor.  This  kind  of  firmness  is  not  desira- 
ble, notwithstanding  it  is  called  for  by  buyers,  who  sel- 
dom know  anything  about  cheese  making.  If  the  acid 
develops  before  the  whey  is  properly  expelled,  or  the 
curd  fs  "  cooked,"  it  carries  off  the  minerals,  which  are 
in  the  form  of  phosphates,  and  this  makes  the  cheese 
poor  indeed.  These  phosphates  are  of  lime,  iron,  mag- 
nesium, etc.,  but  the  principal  is  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
affinity  of  these  minerals  for  lactic  acid  is  stronger  than 
for  phosphoric  acid  ;  so  they  let  go  of  the  latter  and  unite 
with  the  lactic  acid,  forming  lactates  and  leaving  the 
phosphoric  acid  free.  But  if  we  get  all  of  the  whey  out 

of  the  curd  that  we  desire,  and  then  get  the  curd  out  of 
12 


90  HINTS   ON   DAIRYING. 

the  whey— that  is,  draw  off  the  whey— before  the  acid 
comes  on,  we  retain  the  phosphates  and  fats  in  the  cheese 
— all  the  goodness  that  belongs  in  it.  The  acid  will  come 
on  afterward,  but  we  have  reduced  the  sugar  to  a  mini- 
mum,  and  the  amount  of  acid  developed  does  no  serious 
injury.  As  the  whey  is  already  expelled,  of  course  it 
cannot  wash  out  the  minerals  that  are  dissolved.  These 
remain,  and  in  the  process  of  curing  recombine  with  the 
phosphoric  acid.  We  have  left  in  the  curd  about  3^ 
parts  of  the  87  parts  in  100  parts  of  milk.  The  whey  left 
in  the  curd  contains,  we  will  say,  l-10tli  of  the  sugar  that 
was  in  the  milk.  The  acid  formed  from  this,  though  too 
small  to  do  any  known  injury,  is  large  enough  to  do  all 
the  good  required,  if  it  does  any  good  at  all.  We  are, 
therefore,  safe  when  we  get  the  whey  out  of  the  curd  and 
the  curd  out  of  the  whey  before  the  development  of  the 
lactic  acid. 

SALTING. 

When  the  whey  is  well  out  of  the  curd,  so  as  not  to 
waste  the  salt,  the  salt  may  be  applied  and  stirred  in. 
The  salt  does  not  stop  the  development  of  acid,  as  is  pop- 
ularly supposed.  When  applied,  it  aids  in  keeping  the 
curd  loose.  Then  the  curd  may  stand,  with  occasional 
stirring,  almost  any  length  of  time  for  the  purpose  of 
airing  and  cooling,  of  getting  rid  of  any  bad  odors,  of 
developing  flavor  by  oxydation  from  contact  with  the  at- 
mosphere, and  of  letting  the  acid  come  on.  It  is  safest 
not  to  put  the  curd  to  press  until  it  has  a  positively  clean 
sour  smell.  This  shows  that  certain  chemical  changes 


CHEESE   MAKING.  91 

have  taken  place,  freeing  the  curd  of  the  gases  genera- 
ted by  this  process,  and  prevents  any  huffing  of  the 
cheese  on  the  shelf  in  the  curing  room.  Where  ched- 
daring  and  grinding  are  practiced,  the  salt  is  of  course 
applied  after  the  curd  is  ground.  Cheddaring  is  the 
easier  and  safer  method,  as  the  whey  can  be  drawn 
early,  and  there  is  no  danger  from  the  acid.  Salting  at 
the  rate  of  2)^  Ibs.  of  salt  to  1,000  Ibs.  of  milk  is  the  usual 
practice  and  not  far  from  right.  For  long  keeping,  3 
Ibs.  of  salt  are  noi  too  much.  Use  none  but  the  best 
dairy  salt — the  best  of  all  the  dairy  salts,  as  well  as  the 
cheapest,  being  the  Onondaga,  F.  F. 

PUTTING   TO   PRESS. 

After  the  acid  fermentation  is  properly  progressed, 
the  curd  should  be  put  to  press  at  a  temperature  not 
much  below  80  degrees,  nor  much  above  85.  If  higher, 
it  is  liable  to  heat  and  taint  the  cheese  at  the  center;  if 
lower  it  is  difficult  to  face  the  cheese  and  press  the  curd 
together  properly.  But  in  warm  weather,  there  is  not 
much  danger  of  getting  the  curd  too  cool. 


ACID    I.V    CH-EESE 


has  been  written  on  so  much  that  the  subject 
has  become  hackneyed.  The  acid  seems  to  have 
eaten  into  the  souls  of  some  and  turned  them  sour; 
but  notwithstanding,  the  so-called  u  sweet  curd  "  idea  has 
made  steady  progress.  Much  of  the  opposition  has  come 
from  buyers  for  export,  who  do  not  appear  to  be 
able  to  distinguish  between  a  firm  cheese  and  a  hard 
cheese,  and  who  ignore  quality  if  they  get  a  cheese 
hard  enough  to  ship,  without  danger  of  breaking,  by  the 
time  it  is  ten  days  old.  This  has  been  demonstrated  by 
the  fact  that  cheese  condemned  when  green  as  too 
soft  has  been  pronounced  by  the  same  buyers  fine  and 
all  right,  even  endorsed  with  enthusiasm,  when  it  was 
two  or  three  months  old,  wrhich  is  about  as  young  as  a 
first-class  cheese  should  be  shipped. 

ANALYSIS   OF   MILK. 

Of  course,  there  would  be  no  acid  in  milk  if  there 
were  no  sugar  in  it.  The  proportion  of  sugar  is  shown 
by  the  following  analysis  of  an  average  sample  of  good 
milk  made  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  the  late  chemist  of  the  Roy- 
al Agricultural  Society  of  Great  Britain: 


ACID   IN   CHEESE    MAKING.  93 

Water 87.30 

Butter ' ' ' ' 3.75 

Caseine 3,31 

Milk-sugar  and  extractive  matter 4.86 

Mineral  matter  (ash) 0.78 

Total 100.00 

It  will  be  seen  by  this  that  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  at 
least  4.50,  if  we  deduct  the  extractive  matter,  the  propor- 
tion of  which  is  not  given.  Numerous  German  analy- 
ses show  it  to  range  from  3.50  to  5.75  per  cent.  Hen- 
ry and  Chevalier  put  the  average  at  4.77,  and  Prof.  L.  B. 
Arnold  says  milk  from  cows  in  perfect  health  should 
contain,  during  the  month  of  August,  4.30  to  5.50  per  cent. 
We  will  call  it  4.50  per  cent.  There  is  87.30  per  cent  of 
water. 

WHAT   THE   CHEESE   MAKER   DOES. 

In  separating  the  solids  from  the  liquids,  by  the  action 
of  rennet,  at  the  proper  temperature,  we  expel,  say  83.30 
parts  of  the  water,  leaving  4  parts.  We  get  rid  of,  say 
4.20  parts  of  the  sugar,  which  is  held  in  perfect  solution 
in  the  water.  We  lose,  say  .50  of  one  part  of  butter,  .31 
of  one  part  of  the  caseine  or  albuminoids,  and  .13  of  one 
part  of  ash.  This  leaves — 

Water  .. 4.00 

Butter 3.25 

Caseine 3.00 

Sugar 30 

Ash G5 

Total 11.20 

We  thus  have  11.20  per  cent,  of  the  100  parts  out  of 
which  to  get  our  cured  cheese.  A  fair  average  is  10  Ibs. 
of  cheese  for  100  pounds  of  milk.  Some  of  the  water 


94  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

evaporates  in  curing,  say    1  part,  leaying  8  parts.      Our 
10.20  parts  of  cheese  is  then  composed  of  the  following: 

Water...  ..   .3.00 

Butter 3.25 

( 'aseine  3.00 

Sugar,  or  what  results  from  decomposition . .  .30 
Asll , »55 

Total 10.20 

This  is  a  little  in  excess  of  the  general  yield.  The 
waste  is  usually  in  the  greater  amount  of  ash,  sometimes 
nearly  the  whole  of  it,  when  the  acid  develops  before  the 
whey  is  expelled.  In  that  case,  the  lactic  acid  dissolves 
the  phosphates  and  they  run  out  with  the  whey.  This  is 
so  much  loss  of  ingredients  absolutely  essential  to  di- 
gestion and  assimilation. 

WHAT   OUGHT   TO    BE. 

So  far  from  this,  there  ought  to  be  less  loss  of  ingre- 
dients than  we  have  supposed  in  our  illustrative  figures. 
But  more  of  the  butter  is  cut  and  runs  off  with  the  whey 
when  the  acid  is  developed  before  drawing  the  whey. 
The  aim  of  the  "  sweet  curd  "  system  is  to  avoid  this  waste 
as  much  as  possible,  especially  that  of  the  butter  and  ash. 
To  effect  this,  the  whey  is  drawn  sweet  and  the  acid  al- 
lowed to  develop  after  the  curd  is  cooked  and  the  whey 
expelled.  There  need  be  no  more  water  left  in  the  curd, 
but  more  butter  and  ash,  both  of  which  tend  to  make  the 
cheese  softer.  But  with  proper  curing  rooms,  there  is 
no  trouble  in  making  the  cheese  firm  enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  including  shipping.  It  is  better  to  use 
less  rennet  and  not  have  coagulation  begin  under  25  min- 
utes, cutting  the  curd  about  15  or  20  minutes  later,  and 


ACID   IN    CHEESE    MAKING.  95 

to  take  more  time  for  curing,  at  a  lower  temperature. 
We  then  have  a  firmer,  more  buttery,  and  better  flavored 
cheese,  which  is  a  desideratum.  But,  with  high  and 
changing  temperature  in  the  curing  room,  no  certain  or 
satisfactory  results  can  be  counted  on. 

THEORY   AND  PRACTICE. 

In  theory,  we  ought  to  prevent  the  waste  of  butter 
and  caseous  matter  altogether;  but  in  practice,  there  is 
always  a  little  loss  of  butter,  and  there  are  certain  albu- 
minous ingredients,  called  by  the  Germans  ziega,  which 
rennet  will  not  coagulate.  There  is,  of  course,  no  means 
of  saving  this.  The  sugar  we  cannot  and  do  not  want  to 
save  in  the  cheese.  If  retained,  it  would  be  injurious 
and  probably  spoil  the  cheese,  as  the  lactic  acid  in  the 
small  amount  of  sugar  retained  in  the  water  is  all  that 
we  can  well  manage.  But  all  matter  coagulable  by  ren- 
net, all  the  butter,  and  all  the  ash,  we  ought  to  retain; 
and  we  cannot  really  call  ourselves  scientific  cheese  ma- 
kers until  we  can  do  this.  When  accomplished,  a  great- 
er weight  of  cheese  will  be  the  result. 

There  is  no  avoiding  the  acid  resulting  from  the  small 
amount  of  sugar  retained  in  the  curd ;  but,  having  ex- 
pelled sufficient  whey,  if  we  keep  the  curd  warm  enough, 
and  hold  it  in  the  vat  or  the  sink  long  enough,  the  lactic 
acid  will  come  on  and  we  shall  get  rid  of  the  bad  results 
of  putting  a  curd  to  press  sweet.  This  acidity  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  with  the  generality  of  curing  rooms. 
But  with  low  and  steady  temperature  in  the  curing  room, 
we  can  do  about  as  we  please. 


RENNET. 


§UR  recent  observations  more  than  ever  convince  us 
of  the  importance  of  good  rennet  in  cheese  mak- 
ing. Great  evils  and  losses  result  from  the  use  of 
bad  rennet;  and  the  great  trouble  is  that  many  cheese 
makers  do  not  know  when  rennet  is  bad.  There  is  not 
only  the  evil  of  diseased  and  tainted  rennets,  to  begin 
with,  but  the  preparation  from  good  rennets  is  often 
spoiled  in  the  preparing.  Frequently,  in  hot  weather, 
they  are  allowed  to  taint  while  soaking;  and  when  the 
liquid  is  prepared  sweet,  it  is  often  allowed  to  ferment 
and  taint  for  want  of  sufficient  suit  and  from  exposure  in 
a  high  temperature. 

SOAKING    IN    WHEY. 

Soaking  in  whey,  containing  all  its  taints  and  impuri' 
ties,  is  the  source  of  a  vast  amount  of  foul  rennet  and  oft- 
flavored  cheese.  If  whey  is  used,  it  should  be  boiled  to 
kill  taints  and  precipitate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  solids 
remaining  in  it.  But,  do  the  best  that  can  be  done  with 
it,  and  still  whey  is  objectionable  for  soaking  rennets, 
bf'i'iiuse  of  the  acid  that  develops  in  it  from  the  presence 
of  sugar.  This  acid  neutralizes  a  corresponding  amount 
of  rennet  and  helps  to  impoverish  the  cheese.  Indeed, 


RENNET. 

if  carried  far  enough  before  the  curd  is  removed  from  it, 
the  liner  flavoring  oils  are  cut  by  it,  the  phosphates  are 
dissolved,  and  these  pass  out  with  the  whey,  leaving  the 
cheese  but  little  better  than  an  indigestible  mass.  If  the 
acid  adds  solidity  to  the  cheese,  it  does  it  by  removing 
from  it  valuable  ingredients. 

TAINTED    HENNET. 

Frequently,  we  have  encountered  rennet  preparations 
that  were  not  only  very  sour,  but  also  tainted  and  having 
a  strong  smell  of  carrion.  Nothing  but  huffy,  porous, 
stinking  and  rotten  cheese  can  result  from  the  use  of 
such  rennet  preparation.  Yet  it  is  used,  and  the  result 
is  attributed  to  bad  milk,  or  to  the  presence  of  some  in- 
scrutable taint  or  ferment,  so  prone  are  mankind  to  at- 
tribute effects  to  wrong  causes.  It  has  been  to  us  unac- 
countable that  cheese  makers  should  use  such  horrid 
broth  as  we  have  seen  them  use,  if  they  have  any  sense  of 
smell  whatever,  and  utterly  astonishing  that  they  should 
expect  good  cheese  to  be  made  from,  using  it.  With 
good  milk,  the  cheese  may  appear  fairly  good  for  several 
days — especially  if  put  to  curing  at  a  low  temperature. 
But  sooner  or  later,  the  taint  must  make  its  appearance. 
Possibly,  it  may  not  show  ten  days  from  the  hoops,  but 
the  cheese  can  never  become  a  mellow  mass  without  also 
becoming  a  stinking  one.  It  will  soon  be  ripe  and  soon 
rotten. 

CURING1  RENNETS. 

It  is  usually  understood  that  rennets  are  calves' 
stomachs  salted  and  dried,  or  otherwise  prepared;  but  it 


98  HINTS   ON    DAfKYING. 

is  not  so  certain  that  all  Ihc  rennets  in  market  are  of  this 
kind.  The  stomachs  of  the  young  of  all  milk-eating  ani- 
mals may  be  used  for  curding  milk.  We  are  not  so  sure 
but  that  among  u  Bavarian  "  rennets  we  get  the  stomachs 
of  the  young  of  every  animal  known  under  the  sun. 
They  are  of  all  sizes  and  all  degrees  of  strength,  but  are 
generally  liked  by  those  who  use  them.  They  are  cured 
by  tying  the  two  ends,  and  blowing  the  rennets  up,  like 
bladders.  A  better  w^ay,  we  think,  is  to  rub  them  well 
with  pure  dairy  salt,  stretch  them  on  a  hoop  or  crotched 
stick,  and  hang  them  in  a  cool  dry  place.  Some  simply 
fill  them  with  salt,  tie  them,  and  hang  them  up  to  dry. 
A  great  objection  to  this  is,  that  the  salt  is  likely  to  draw 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and  in  wet  weather  the 
rennets  are  liable  to  drip  and  thus  lose  strength.  Salting 
rennets  down  in  a  barrel,  as  we  do  meat,  is  considered 
objectionable — for  what  reason,  we  know  not.  The  wri- 
ter had  excellent  uluck,"  one  season,  with  rennets  pre- 
served in  this  way.  In  whatever  way  preserved,  rennets 
should,  by  all  means,  be  kept  cool.  Heat  is  found  to  be 
very  injurious,  while  cold — even  freezing  and  thawing — 
appears  advantageous.  Possibly  because  the  freezing 
and  thawing  loosen  the  fiber  and  set  the  rennet  spores 
free. 

AGE    AN   ADVANTAGE. 

No  rennets  less  than  a  year  old  should  be  used,  if  it 
can  possibly  be  avoided.  The  old  rennets,  other  things 
being  equal,  are  stronger  and  make  a  firmer  curd  than 
new  ones.  Any  one  who  has  experimented  with  both  will 


RENNET.  99 

always  aim  to  have  a  supply  of  good  old  rennets  on  band. 

SAVING   RENNETS. 

Ill  saving  rennets,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
them  right.  The  fourth  stomach  of  the  calf  is  what  is 
saved.  Cut  it  from  the  adjoining  stomach,  at  the  point 
of  junction,  and  do  not  leave  a  piece  of  intestine  on  the 
other  end,  but  cut  close  to  the  opening  of  the  rennet. 
Remove  straws  and  dirt  of  all  kinds  carefully,  but  be 
sure  to  not  rub  off  the  delicate  lining  of  the  stomach, 
which  is  the  digestive  or  coagulative  part  and  very  much 
inclined  to  adhere  to  your  hands,  especially  if  they  are 
dry.  Do  not  try  to  rinse  off  anything  more  than  the 
loose  dirt,  and  that  without  rubbing,  for  you  cannot  rub 
without  waste.  What  is  better,  avoid  having  dirt  or  any 
thing  else  in  the  stomach  to  remove.  This  you  can  do 
by  letting  the  calf  go  sixteen  or  eighteen  hours  without 
eating,  and  placed  where  it  can  get  hold  of  nothing  to 
swallow  before  killing.  Say,  feed  it  at  night  and  slay  it 
the  next  day  about  noon.  The  stomach  will  then  be 
empty  and  clean  and  well  stored  with  pepsin  for  the  di- 
gestion of  the  next  meal.  This  secretion,  is  just  what 
you  want.  The  rennet  is  best  when  the  calf  is  six  or 
eight  days  old.  But,  in  any  case,  digestion  should  be 
well  established  before  killing.  If  the  calf  should  go  too 
long  without  food — as  is  often  the  case  with  veal  calves 
— the  stomach  will  get  inflamed.  This  is  objectionable 

SELECTING   RENNETS. 

In  selecting  rennets  to  soak,  all  discolored  and  bad 
smelling  ones  should  be  scrupulously  rejected.  But 


100  HINTS    ON    DAIUVINS. 

rubbing  rennets  is  a  disagreeable  and  disgusting  busi- 
ness, and  it  is  somewhat  diilicult  to  keep  your  rennet  o( 
uniform  strength.  Therefore,  if  good  rennet  extract  can 
1)3  bought  at  a  reasonable  pri;-3,  we  would  recommend 
its  use.  It  ought  to  be  made  better  and  cheaper  in  a 
wholesale  way  than  in  little  batches  at  each  factory.  To 
guMrd  against  imposition,  one  should  buy  only  of  known 
reputable  dealers.  Preparing  your  own  rennet  is  much 
like  doing  your  own  shoe  making.  It  doesn't  pay,  if  you 
have  got  anything  else  remunerative  to  do. 

WHOLESALE    PREPARATION. 

If  one  must  prepare  his  own  rennet,  the  better  way  is 
to  do  it  in  a  lump  before  the  cheese-making  season  be- 
gins. Get  a  strong  barrel  and  a  pounder — such  as  used 
by  washerwomen;  also  a  wringer.  Take  old  rennets  and 
cut  them  into  strips.  Make  a  weak  brine  of  pure  water, 
by  using  one  pound  of  salt  to  twenty  pounds  of  water, 
and  in  this,  soak,  pound  and  wring  your  rennets.  Hang 
them  up  and  freeze  them;  then  soak,  pound  and  wring 
them  again;  and  so  on  as  long  as  you  can  get  any 
strength.  When  done,  carefully  settle,  skim  and  strain 
your  liquid.  Put  it  in  a  clean  barrel  or  stone  jars,  put  in 
all  the  salt  that  it  will  dissolve,  so  that  a  little  will  settle 
on  the  bottom,  then  stop  or  cover  tight;  put  in  a  cool 
place  and  take  from  it  as  wanted  for  use.  There  is  noth- 
ing better  than  saturated  brine  for  keeping  animal  pro- 
ducts. Be  sure,  however,  that  you  use  only  the  purest 
dairy  salt  in  preparing  brine.  Some  say  that  only  stone 
jars  should  be  used  for  keeping  rennet.  We  have  used 


RENNET.  101 

an  ash  tub  for  the  amount  prepared  weekly.  To  keep  the 
wood  from  tainting,  we  invariably,  every  time  \ve  dipped 
out  rennet  and  exposed  new  surface,  rubbed  it  with  salt. 

EXCLUDING    AIR. 

Rennet  could  be  much  more  easily  kept  sweet  if  put 
in  an  air-tight  vessel.  The  "American  Dispensatory" 
says:  "  When  gastric  juice  is  completely  protected  from 
the  ail1  it  may  be  kept  unchanged  for  a  longtime;  but  on 
exposure  it  speedily  undergoes  decomposition,  acquires 
a  very  offensive  odor,  and  loses  its  characteristic  diges- 
tive property."  We  think  that  the  Dispensatory  is 
right.  The  composition  of  pure  gastric  juice  is  as  fol- 
lows: WTater,97.00;  salts,  1.75;  pepsin,  1.25;  total,  100.00. 
There  is  also  a  small  amount  of  free  acid.  Both  rennet 
extract  and  pepsin  are  used  as  medicine. 


KOOMS. 


JT  is  hard  to  determine  which  is  of  the  greater  impor- 
tance, good  rennet   or   properly   constructed  curing- 
rooms;  for  both  are  necessary  to  the   production  of 
the  best  cheese,  while  the  want  of  either  is  sure  to  injure 
if  not  to  spoil  it.     The  importance  of  control iug  the  tem- 
perature in  curing  has  not  yet  taken  hold  of  the  popular 
mind.     The  best  milk  in  the  world  may  be  spoiled  by  bad 
rennet,  and  the  best  curd  in  the  world  may  be  spoiled  by 
a  bad  curing-room. 

TEMPERATURE. 

In  a  large  majority  of  the  curing-rooms  of  the  country, 
the  temperature  ranges  from  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  to  90 
degrees  and  even  above.  Sometimes  these  extremes  are 
realized  within  a  few  days.  Think  of  setting  a  curd  to 
fermenting  at  80  to  90  degrees,  when  it  ought  to  start  at 
00  to  65  degrees !  Yet,  this  is  frequently  done;  and  to 
prevent  the  cheese  from  huffing  and  crawling  it  is  pro- 
posed by  some  to  make  the  curd  so  dry  and  sour  in  the 
beginning  that  heat  will  not  soften  it.  In  this  way,  is 
made  what  some  buyers  style  a  "firm"  cheese.  The  best 
English  Cheddars,  according  to  the  American  Encyclope- 


RENNET.  103 

ilia,  are  set  to  curing  at  a  temperature  of  60  degrees,  and 
are  never  allowed  to  go  above  70  degrees.  Our  observa- 
tion and  experience  are  that  the  range  of  temperature 
should  never  go  above  75  degrees.  Curing  should  begin 
as  low  as  05  degrees,  and  no  cheese  should  be  marketed 
under  thirty  days  from  the  hoops.  When  the  curing  is 
slow,  as  it  ought  to  be,  the  cheese  will  not  be  ripe  in  less 
than  that  time.  If  sixty  days  old  before  ready  for  mar- 
ket, the  better.  The  hurrying  process  is  everywhere  bad 
for  the  product,  and  no  amount  of  souring  helps  the  mat- 
ter, however  hard  it  may  make  the  cheese  and  however 
well  it  may  stand  up  in  hot  weather.  We  want  some- 
thing else  besides  standing-up  quality.  With  a  lowr 
and  even  temperature  for  curing,  we  do  not  need  to 
work  all  'he  goodness  out  of  the  curd  to  make  a  firm 
cheese.  We  do  not  have  to  cut  the  fats  and  phosphates 
out  with  acid,  nor  to  dry  all  the  moisture  out  by  fine  cut- 
ting and  high  scalding  or  long  scalding.  We  can  stop 
the  cooking  when  the  curd  is  evenly  cooked  through  so 
as  to  be  springy  when  pressed  together  by  the  hands, 
take  it  out  of  the  whey  before  the  acid  develops,  and  put 
it  to  press  without  unnecessary  delay. 

AN    EXAMPLE. 

In  the  fall  of  1884,  we  ate  some  cheese  at  Mr.  N.  L. 
Brown's,  Gurnee,  111.,  which  was  dipped  sweeter  and 
put  to  press  softer  than  we  ever  thought  of  doing;  yet 
the  cheese  was  c! .)se-grained  and  fine-flavored,  and  one 
that  would  pass  muster  as  a  first-class  cheese  anywhere. 
But  it  was  not  cured  in  a  hot  curing  room,  nor  in  one 
where  the  temperature  went  up  and  down  the  same  as 


104  HINTS    ON     DAIRYING. 

it  did  on  the  outside  of  the  building.  It  was  placed  in 
his  cellar,  at  a  temperature  of  64  degrees,  and  there  re- 
mained until  it  was  fit  to  cut.  Xor  was  it  even  rubbed, 
but  occasionally  turned  over.  When  cut,  it  looked  like  a 
cheese  that  had  been  kept  in  a  box  a  year,  covered  with 
mold  and  mites.  The  superfluous  moisture  was  dried 
out  but  the  butter  was  all  left.  It  demonstrated  what  can 
be  done  by  temperature.  Had  this  cheese  been  cured  in 
an  ordinary  curing-room,  it  would  have  gone  all  out  of 
shape  in  a  few  days — as  soon  as  rapid  fermentation  set 
in — and  been  off  flavor  by  the  time  it  was  ten  days  old. 
Several  other  cheeses  were  cured  in  the  same  cellar,  in 
the  same  way,  but  none  of  them  were  put  to  press  so  soft 
or  sweet,  but  all  sweet-curd  cheeses,  and  all  buttery  and 
fine.  This  particular  one  was  the  result  of  hurry,  as 
other  matters  than  the  curd  demanded  attention.  But 
the  thought  came  that  it  would  be  a  good  experiment,  as 
it  was,  and  the  result  was  satisfactory,  though  not  differ- 
ent from  what  wras  expected.  Cheeses  made  in  the  same 
way  as  the  others  that  were  cured  in  the  cellar,  and  some 
cooked  more  and  soured  more,  were  made  by  the  same 
gentleman  and  cured  in  an  ordinary  curing-room.  In 
hot  weather,  they  swelled  and  some  of  them  got  out  of 
shape,  while  the  flavor  was  sharp  and  rough.  But  those 
in  the  cellar,  at  64  degrees,  apparently  never  moved  a 
hair's  breadth  out  of  shape,  were  as  solid  as  old  butter, 
yet  firm  enough  for  shipping  even,  and  of  the  finest  fla- 
vor. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  cellar  was 
exceedingly,  clean  and  sweet,  and  was  well  ventilated. 
These  cheeses  were  a  demonstration,  if  not  a  revelation. 


CURING  ROOMS.  105 

MOISTURE  IX  CURING. 

It  should  be  remarked,  by  the  way,  that  a  curing- 
room  does  not  want  to  be  a  dry  room.  We  do  not  want 
to  dry  cheese;  we  want  to  cure  it;  that  is,  let  it  go 
through  the  proper  chemical  change.  This  it  does  best 
in  a  somewhat  moist  room,  in  which  the  surface  does  not 
dry  and  become  hard  and  impervious,  so  that  the  gases 
cannot  escape.  It  is  better  to  contend  with  a  little  mold 
than  a  dry  atmosphere. 

15KTTEK   CHEESE    CAN    HE    MADE. 

We  see,  on  turning  to  Prof.  Arnold's  "  American  Dai- 
rying,1' that  he  says:  "The  temperature  of  a  curing-room 
for  whole  milk  should  be  65  to  70  degrees ;  for  part  skims, 
75  to  80  degrees."  It  is  thus  seen  that  fat  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  curing.  "  The  more  fat,"  he  says,  u  the 
cooler  may  be  the  room ;  and  the  less  fat,  the  warmer 
may  it  be."  Again :  "  Under  the  present  state  of  things, 
a  cheese  that  will  stand  a  voyage  of  4,000  miles  can  hard- 
ly be  called  a  fancy  cheese.  *  *  *  But  a  much  fan- 
cier cheese  than  w^e  are  now  producing,  one  that  will 
stand  shipping,  can  be  made.  To  do  this  will  require 
milk  to  be  free  from  some  of  the  imperfections. which  are 
now  quite  common;  it  must  be  transported  to  the  facto- 
ries in  much  better  ventilated  cans;  it  mast  be  made  with 
less  rennet  and  less  acidity;  and  it  must  be  cured  in  an  even 
and  lower  temperature.''''  We  mark  the  conclusion  in  ital- 
ic*, because  we  believe  these  are  vital  points.  We  insist 
that  we  cannot  do  ourselves  credit  nor  realize  the  best 
financial  results  in  cheese  making  until  we  bnihl  better 

14 

Of 


106  HINTS  ON  DAIRYING. 

curing  rooms — rooms  in  which  we  can  control  the  tem- 
perature without  fail.  We  have  not  yet  settled  down  to 
cheese  making.  We  are  still  trying  experiments  and  re- 
sorting to  temporary  expedients,  We  must  build  far 
more  deliberately  and  for  permanency.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  we  should  point  out  just  how  a  building  may 
be  erected  so  as  to  give  control  of  the  inside  temperature. 
Architects  know  how  to  do  it.  When  our  cheese  makers 
get  to  the  point  where  they  demand  such  buildings,  they 
will  get  them  without  much  trouble  and  at  moderate  ex- 
pense. It  is  only  necessary  that  they  should  have  the 
-'  will."  The  lt  way  "  will  speedily  open. 


E  notice  that,  in  some  localities,  the  patrons  of  the 
cheese  factory  are  very  much  interested  in  the 
question  of  the  value  of  whey  for  feeding  purpo- 
ses— some  going  so  far  as  to  assert  that  what  is  left  of  milk 
in  cheese  making  is  as  valuable  as  what  is  removed !  This 
is  a  startling  assertion,  and,  if  true,  would  convict  our 
dairymen  of  a  vast  amount  of  stupid  waste.  Is  it  true? 
Let  us  try  to  get  at  the  facts  of  the  case  by  a  direct,  com- 
mon-sense investigation  of  it. 

COMPOSITION   OF   MILK. 

We  will  begin  with  the  composition  of  milk.  From 
hundreds  of  German  analyses,  ranging  from  81.30  to  91.50 
parts  of  water,  we  take  a  fair  average  analysis,  which  we 
think  will  do  justice  to  the  mixed  milk  of  our  best  cheese 
factories : 

Water...  .  ..87.18  |  Sugar...  ...    4.21 


Caseine 4.21 

Albumen 55 

Fat 3.24 


Ash 

Total...  ..   99.99 


WHAT   IS   TAKEN   OUT   BY   CHEESE   MAKING. 

Now,  in  making  cheese,  what  follows?    We  ought  to 
secure  all  the  caseine,  but  we  do  not  quite.      There  is  a 


108  HINTS   ON   DAIRYING. 

small  waste.  We  loose  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  albumen. 
We  leave  in  the  whey  most  of  the  sugar,  if  we  do  not 
convert  it  into  acid  before  getting  rid  ot  the  whey,  in 
which  case  we  may  have  an  injurious  amount  of  the  acid 
in  the  curd,  besides  dissolving  and  washing  out  nearly 
all  the  ash,  which  is  composed  of  phosphates,  principally 
of  iron,  magnesia  and  lime.  These  are  changed  into  lac- 
tates,  leaving  the  phosphoric  acid  free-  not  a  very  uood 
food  for  anything  but  rats.  We  ought  to  save  nearly  or 
quite  all  the  ash- — the  phosphates.  But  by  the  ordinary 
process  of  cheese  making,  these  are  nearly  all  lost,  as  is 
shown  by  the  analyses  of  whey,  which  probably  accounts 
for  the  low  estimate  in  the  popular  mind  of  the  value  of 
cheese  as  food,  it  being  rated  at  one-half  the  value  that 
it  would  have  were  the  phosphates  all  retained.  But, 
four-fifths  of  the  nitrogenous  and  muscle-making  mate- 
rial has  been  removed,  and  also  nine-tenths  of  the  fat, 
which  is  heat  producing  and  some  say  furnishes  motor 
power.  Wre  have  retained  in  the  cheese  5.84  of  the  12.82 
parts  of  solids,  leaving  5.98  parts,  4.21  parts  of  which  are 
sugar  and  not  wanted  in  the  cheese,  or,  at  most,  only  a 
fraction  of  it.  We  leave  less  than  one  part  of  the  albu- 
minous and  caseous  matter,  which  is  the  most  valuable, 
and  only  one-third  of  one  part  of  fat.  So  there  is  less 
than  one  part  of  solids  left  besides  sugar,  and  the  rest  of 
the  whey  is  water. 

COMPOSITION    OF    WHEY. 

What  is  whey,  then,  but  sweetened  water,  using  sugar 
of  a  very  low  sweetening  quality,  with  a  fraction  of  albu- 


WHEY.  109 

ininous  matter  and  ash  in  it?  Again,  by  the  so-called 
11  s\vect  "  process,  which  retains  all,  or  nearly  all,  the 
phosphates  in  the  cheese,  the  whey  is  made  still  poorer 
by  analysis.  Only  the  sugar  and  a  fraction  of  the  albu- 
minous matter,  not  coagulated  by  rennet,  is  left  in  the 
whey;  and  the  amount  of  sugar  in  milk  varies  consider- 
'  ably,  ranging,  in  a  large  number  of  German  analyses, 
from  8.0  to  5.48  per  cent,  of  sugar.  But  let  us  more 
closely  examine  the  composition  of  whey.  An  average 
of  eighteen  analyses  made  by  Voelcker  is  as  follows: 

Water SM.02  I  Sugar >      ,  qq 

Nitrogenous  matter. . .     .!)(>  |  Lactic  acid ) 

Fat...  33  i 

Ash 70  I  Total 100.00 

POOR    STUFF. 

Thus  it  is  very  plainly  to  be  seen  that  whey  is  pool- 
stuff  to  feed,  even  in  its  best  estate.  It  has  some  value 
to  mix  with  other  foods,  if  used  sweet;  but  when  the  su- 
gar has  all  turned  to  acid,  and  the  phosphates  have  be- 
come lactates,  leaving  the  phosphoric  acid  free,  the 
whey  is  abominable,  andean  be  used  only  in  small  quan- 
tities and  with  great  care.  It  ought  not  to  be  fed  to 
young  animals  with  tender  stomachs,  and  does  older  ani- 
mals no  good. 

CRUELTY   TO   ANIMALS. 

All  this  corresponds  with  general  observation  and 
experience.  The  most  intelligent  dairymen  with  whom 
we  are  acquainted  do  not  consider  sour  whey  worth 
drawing  home.  It  is  cruel  to  feed  sweet  whey  to  any 
animal  exclusively.  Even  a  hog,  which  has  made  iis 
trrowth— and  no  animal  can  more  fully  extract  the  nutri- 


110  HINTS   OX    DAIRYING. 

health  while  actually  growing  fat  on  sweet  whey.  The 
portion  of  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  albuminous  matter 
prolongs,  rather  than  sustains  life.  That  is  to  say,  the 
hog  will  not  starve  to  death  quite  so  quick  if  fed 
whey  as  it  will  without  it.  The  sugar  accumulates  in 
the  system  as  fat,  while  the  hog  is  slowly  perishing  of 
inanition.  But  if  it  is  thus  cruel  to  feed  it  alone  to  full 
grown  animals,  it  is  doubly  so  to  feed  it  to  young  and 
growing  animals — as  pigs  and  calves — the  necessities  of 
the  lives  of  which  demand  tissue-making  material  as  well 
as  life-sustaining.  If  whey  is  used,  let  it  be  fed  sweet, 
and  always  with  some  kind  of  dry  nitrogenous  i'ood,  as 
bean  meal,  oil  meal,  pea  meal,  clover,  etc.  But,  with  the 
acid  system  of  cheese-making,  it  is  impossible  to  do  this. 
The  whey  is  decomposed  before  run  into  the  whey-vat. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE 3-    4 

HISTORICAL— In  Asia;  Among  the  Jews;  In  Southern  Eu- 
rope; In  America;  Figures  from  the  Census;  Growth  in 
Thirty  Years;  Product  per  Cow  and  per  Capita;  Home 
Consumption  vs.  Exports;  Forms  of  Milk  Consumption; 
1  he  Private  Dairy  vs.  the  Factory 5—  1'J 

CONDITIONS— Pastures;  Water:  Winter  Food:  The  Sta- 
ble; Shelter;  The  Dairy  House;  Cleanliness;  The  Herd.  13—  17 

DAIRY  STOCK-Points of  a  Milker;  Dutch-Friesian ;  The 
Jersey;  The  Guernsey;  The  Ayrshire;  The  Shorthorn; 
The  Devon;  The  American  Holderness;  Inbreeding; 
Swiss ;  Polled ;  Hereford ;  Common  Stock 18—  34 

BREEDING  DAIRY  STOCK- Selection;  Coupling;  Care..  35—  39 

FEEDING  STOCK— Carbonaceous  and  Nitrogenous  Foods; 
What  is  Carbon?  What  is  Nitrogen?  Compounding  Ra- 
tions; Per  day  and  per  1,000  Ibs.  Live  Weight;  Sample 
Rations;  Fattening  Rations;  Working  Rations;  Diges- 
tibility of  Foods;  Elements  of  Foods;  Ensilage;  Re- 
marks   40—  52 

HANDLING  MI LK-Keep  Quiet;  Regularity;  Keep  Down 
the  Foul  Odors;  Keep  Out  the  Dirt;  Let  Out  the  Cows; 
A  Lick  of  Meal;  Care  of  Milk;  Composition  of  Milk; 
Deterioration  of  Milk  in  the  Udder;  Do  Fats  Expand 
Before  Congealing?  Effects  of  Falling  Temperature; 
Cooling  and  Airing:  Protection  from  the  Hot  Sun;  Treat- 
ment of  Night's  and  Morning's  Milk;  Receiving;  Test- 
ing; Bad  Milk ;  Weighing;  Keeping  Milk 53—06 

BUTTER  MAKING— Deep  Setting  and  Water  Cooling; 
Effect  of  Too  Low  Cooling;  Buttermilk  Flavor;  Shallow 
Setting  and  Air  Cooling;  Oxydizing  Cream;  Skimming 
Milk;  When  to  Skim;  Churning;  Temperatures;  What 
Makes  the  Butter  Come ;  When  to  Stop  Churning ;  Work- 
ing; Salting;  Salt  as  a  Preservative;  Packing  Butter; 
Preparing  the  Package;  Closing  the  Package;  Storing; 
Style  of  Package 67—  80 


CHEESE  MAKING— Duty  of  Patrons;  Unreasonable  Ex- 
pectation; Guarantees;  Heatiim;  Coloring;  Setting: 
Other  Details;  Keep  the  Temperature  Even;  Cutting; 
Cut  Fine;  "Cooking;"  Drawing  the  Whey;  Salting; 
Putting  to  Press 

ACID  IN  CHEESE  MAKING- Analysis  of  Milk:  What  the 
Cheese  Maker  Does;  What  Ought  to  Be:  Theory  and 
Practice ' !»2-  !>:> 

RENNET— Soaking  in  Whey;  Tainted  Rennet;  Curing  Ren- 
nets; Age  an  Advantage;  Saving  Rennets;  Selecting 
Rennets;  Wholesale  Preparation ;  Excluding  Air IK;—  101 

(TIRING  ROOMS— Temperature;    An  Example;  Moisture 

in  Curing;  Better  Cheese  Can  Be  Made 102—101; 

WHEY— Composition  of  Milk;  Composition  of  Whey:  Poor 

Stuff;  Cruelty  to  Animals ' 107—110 


Apparatus  &  Supplies 

FOR 

CHEESE  FACTORIES,  CREAMERIES 
AND  DAIRIES. 


MAKING   CHEESE    FROM    20  TO   800   COWS 
SENT   ON   APPLICATION. 

CHILDS   &  JONES, 
UTICA.  N.  Y. 


fREISIAN  i/nTLE. 


THE  UNADILLA  VALLEY 

STOCK  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION 

import  only  the  finest  registered  Stock  found  in  Friesland 
and  North  Holland,  in  conformity  with  the  requirements 
of  the  Dutch-Friesian  Breeders'  Association  of  America. 
The  renowned  prize  Bull, 

MOOTS  2e, 

at  head  of  herd.  Their  herd  has  been  widely  exhibited 
and  awarded  more  prizes  than  any  herd  in  this  country. 
An  examination  of  the  herd  will  convince  the  most 
skeptical  of  its  great  superiority.  Catalogues  on  appli- 
cation. 

"r®. 

WEST  EDMESTON,  N.  Y. 


CHEESE  AND  BUTTER  MAKERS'  SUPPLIES 

and  Complete  Manufacturing  Outfits. 

Pat.  Gaii  2:  Cheese  Presses,  Self  Bandr.girg  Cheese  Hoops,  Cheese 
ats,  Patent  Twin  Creamery  Vats,  Curd  Sinks,  Curd  Mills,  Curd 
nives,  Churns.  Butter  Workers.  Rennet  and  Annatto  Jars,  Fair- 


Vats 

Knives, 

banks  Scales,  C'liee^e  Screws  and  Hoops. 


PHILADELPHIA 

BANISH  -WESToN  §REAM  SEPARATOR. 

It  saves  time;  cives  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  more  butter  and  of 
better  quality;  no  ice  required ;  leaves  skim  milk  fresh  and  puri- 
fied; saves  room  in  creamery;  pays  for  itself  in  a  short  time;  cost 
of  maintenance  very  small  as  machine  is  very  durable. 

Small  Separator,  portable,  capacity  650  Ibs.  per  hour. 
Medium  Separator,  capacity  900  to  1,000  Ibs.  per  hour. 
Large  Separator,  capacity  1 ,600  to  1 ,800  Ibs.  per  hour. 
Extra  Separator,  capacity  2,^00  to  2,500  Ibs.  per  hour. 
Send  for  Special  Circular. 


Bradley  Butter  Boxes,  Butter  Pails  and  Butter  Trays. 

CHEESE  BOX  MATERIAL,  TACKS  AND  NAILS. 

Wire's  Patent,  Self  Cutting,  Self  Agitating,  Self  Salting 
CIRCULAR  CHEESE  VAT. 

Three  Sizes : -5,000,  8,000, 12,000  pounds  of  milk  respectively. 


ANSEN'S  DANISH  LIQUID      FORTY-SIX   HIGHEST 

PRIZES,  3  GOLD  MEDALS 

"RT  TT^TTT  L?  POT  fM?  at  World's  Fairs.  Vege- 
DU  1  1  £ll\  ^Ui^Ur\  table  Oil.  Colors  the  Fin- 
.  est  butter  made  in  Em  ope, 


Fast  superseding  all  other  Coloring  in  America.  Does  not  color 
the  Buttermilk.  Butter  beautiful.  Greatly  enhances  value.  No 
Alkali.  !»/.en  bottle-;  an  I  Directions  free  to'l) nudists.  HANSEN'S 
EXTRACT  of  RENNET  and  STANDARD  CHEESE  COLOR.  No 
manufacturer  or  repacker  can  afford  lo  neglect  Danish  preparations. 

BURRELL   &    WHITMAN,   LITTLE    FALLS,  N.  Y. 


Improved 

SUITER 

Will  Not  Color  the  Buttermilk.  :— 

-*-l  It  is  the  Strongest  Color  Made,  t-*-" 

-f-t  It  will  not  Change  to  Rancidity. 

It  is  the  ONLY  Oil  Butter  Color  manufactured  that 

It  WILL  »  NOT*  FLAVOR  *  HUTTER^ 

BEWARE  OF  IMITATIONS. 
l^E  ONLY  THE  MOST  RELIABLE. 

Took   the    Highest    Award  at   New  Orleans    and 
Wherever  Exhibited. 

MjsCE  have  been  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  color  since 
V^Ai/1870,  and  were  the  first  to  make  an  oil  color  in  this  country. 
Other  manufacturers  have  followed  our  example,  and  are  now 
endeavoring  to  reap  where  we  have  sown.  Ours  is  the  old  reliable 
butter  color  and  the  only  one  that  is  safe  to  use.  All  others  flavor 
the  butter. 

Our  Butter  Color  is  for  sale  by  druggists  and  grocers  generally 
throughout  the  United  States.  Jf  they  do  not  have  it.  ask  them  to 
order  it  from  their  wholesale  druggist  or  giocer.  On  receipt  of 
price  we  will  send  our  color  to  any  point.  Send  for  prices. 

IF1.  23.  lETaxgo  cte  Co., 

MILLS.   WIl^. 


Cltf  O1VTDAGA  F.  F.  SALT 

-X  WARRANTED  X- 
as  Pure  as  any  Salt  in  the  IVIarket. 


Not  Excelled  for  Butter  or  Cheese,  for  the  Table,  or 
for  all  Culinary  Purposes. 


The  following  is  the  analysis  made  by  Prof.  Babcock,  of  the 
New  York  Experiment  Station,  in  January,  1884: 

Water 0.59,3 

Insoluble  Matter 0.019 

Sulphate  of  Lime 0.760 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia 0.094 

Chloride  of  Sodium  (Pure  Salt) 98.501 

99.967 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  that,  the  Onondaga  F.  F.  Salt  is 
very  pure,  containing  only  m  percent,  of  impurities  and  water 
The  amount  of  pure  salt  is  98.501.  This  is  not  materially  different 
from  the  analysis  of  Wai/  &  Stillwell,  made  by  the  direction  of  the 
New  York  Butter  and  Cheese  Exchange,  in  1875— one  analysis 
showing  98.5242.  and  the  other  98.3864  parts  of  pure  salt.  Asliton 
contained,  according  to  their  analysis,  97.7598,  and  Higgin  97.6809 
parts  of  pure  salt,  the  impurities  equaling  2.20  per  cent,  in  Ashton 
and  ?.'>r>  per  cent  in  Higgin,  while  the  impurities  in  Onondaga  F.  F. 
Salt  are  only  1.50  per  cent. 

1  irst  premiums  were  taken  at  New  Orleans,  at  the  World's 
Fair,  by  both  Butter  and  Cheese  salted  with  Onondaga  F.  F.  Salt. 
It  wins  everywhere  that  there  is  open  and  fair  competition.  Dairy 
goods  salted  with  it  took  a  majority  of  all  the  premiums  (46  out  of 
«)>  awarded  at  the  Grand  Union  Fair  in  Milwaukee,  December  2d 
to  9th,  1882,  over  four  foreign  competitors.  It  was  awarded  a  medal 
at  the  Centennial  by  a  committee  of  scientists  and  experts  from  all 
1  ai  ts  of  the  world,  "for  purity  and  high  degree  of  excellence." 

SCLE  MANL'FA(  TUKJRS, 

HM ERICA^  B/IIRY  SALT  io.,  1-. 

ADDIJKSS 


SYRACUSE.  N.   V. 


THE  O  ©ROWELL  O  ©REACT) 

(Potent  Applied  f<  r) 

W.  H.  BOND,  Sole  Mcruff  ctrcr. 


Et  is  very  easily  a.l 
justed  w lie  11  clean 
ing,  no  tools  o  r 
wrenches  being  re- 
quired, has  no; glass 
tubes  to  get  broken, 
is  smoothly,  strong- 
ly and  mechanical: 
ly  made  and  easy 
to  handle  or  move, 
and  is  made  in  all 
sizes  to  suit  small 
dairies. 


It  consists  of  a 
heavy  tin  recepta- 
cle for  milk,  im- 
mersed in  water, 
\\hich  is  held  in  a 
double  walled  vat. 
and  is  so  construct- 
ed that  either  a 
running  stream  or 
ice  can  he  used  for 
cooling  and  keeps 
the  milk  at  an  even 
temperature. 


Lowest  in  Price,  Smoothest  Make,  Most  Durable  Stojk 

Very  Easily  Cleaned,  No  Possible  Chance  for 

Souring,  and  is  a  Complete  Success. 

THE  NEWEST  I.N  THE  MARKET 

Price,  size  for  56  Quarts.  $25. 

Dealers    Should  'Secmr*e  the  Sale  of  it  at    Onee. 

—  X()X— 

SPECIALTIES:  Tin  Rooting,  Eave  Troughs  and  Conductors. 
Sinks,  Pumps  and  Lead  Pipe,  all  kinds  of  Tin,  Copper  and  Sheet 
Iron  Work:  Cream  Pails,  Milk  Pails,  Strainers,  and  other  Ddiry 
Goods  Made  to  Order. 


.     ZBOIbTXD, 
127  So.  Salina  and  3  E.  Onondaga  Sts.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


ornish,  ®isrtis  ^     (jpreene. 


\Yc  m:ike  from  the  best  inulcrial 


that  are  models  of  strength  and  simplicity. 
Unquestioned  Proof  Given   of    their   Durability 

SOLE    MANUFACTURERS    OF   THE 

Curtis'    Improved    Factory    Churn,     Mason's    Power 

Butte~  Worke  ,  Lever  Worker,  Curtis'  Square 

Box  Churn,  Rectangular  Churn,  Cream 

Vats,     Dog     Power,    etc.,    etc. 

"ONE  FAMILY  CHURN  AT  WHOLESALE  WHERE  WE 
HAVE  NO  AGENT." 

All  goods  warranted  exactly  as  represented. 

TWO  GOLD  AND  FOURTEEN  SILVER  MEDALS  AWARDED  FOR  SUPERIORITY 

CORNISH,  CURTIS  &  GREENE, 

Ft.  Atkinson,  Wls. 


JENK'S   AUTOMATIC  CHEESE   MAKER. 

The  Latest  and  Greatest  Improvement  in 

Cheese  Making  Appliances  for 

Factory    Use. 

WILL  PAY  FOR  ITSELF  IN  ONE  SEASON. 


•WEEPSTAKES  iURD  f  UTTER 

and  Other  Great  Improvements  in  Cheese 
and     Butter     Apparatus. 


The  Cheapest,  Handiest  and  Best  Bandage  Made,  and 
a  full  line  of 

gllEESE  f  ACTORY  AND  JDAIRY  §UPPLIES. 

Sr/ttl  for  itnr  lllu  nti  (tied  Circular. 


Of  TH 


ES  MILLAR  &  SON, 

UTICA,  N.  Y. 


"MATT 


J  jgo: 


